《Tab.1 List of the commonly used tumor markers along with their associated tumor types and tissue an

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《基于稀土上转换纳米荧光探针的肿瘤标志物体外检测（英文）》

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With the rapid development of genomics，proteomics and molecular pathology，a large amount of tumor markers have been characterized and used in clinical application[36].Generally speaking，tumor markers can be roughly divided into four broad classifications on the basis of their chemical nature，namely proteins，conjugated proteins，peptides and carbohydrates（Tab.1）.As shown in Tab.1，there exist many different tumor markers，some are specific for a particular type of cancer，whereas others are associated with two or more cancer types.We would like to emphasize that hitherto no“universal”tumor marker that can detect any type of cancer has been found.For instance，alpha-fetoprotein（AFP）is a glycoprotein of 591 amino acids and a carbohydrate moiety，which is produced by the yolk sac and the liver during fetal or cancer development.As a result，AFP can be used as a tumor marker to help detect and diagnose cancers of the liver，testes，and ovaries in males or non-pregnant females.The normal value of AFP is generally less than 40 ng·m L-1，and a level above 200 ng·m L-1in adults can be indicative of hepatocellular carcinoma（HCC），germ cell tumors，and metastatic cancers of the liver[28-31，33，37-39].Carcinoembryonic antigen（CEA）depicts a set of highly related glycoproteins involved in cell adhesion.CEA is generally yielded in gastrointestinal tissue during fetal development，but the production stops before birth.Therefore，CEA is usually presented only at very low levels in the blood of healthy adults.However，the serum levels will be raised in some types of cancers such as colon and rectal cancer，which means that it can be used as a tumor marker in clinical tests.Human chorionicβ-gonadotropin（β-HCG）is a glycoprotein hormone produced rapidly by placental trophoblasts during pregnancy.Elevated expression ofβ-HCG in serum，urine or tumor tissue is a strong indicator of adverseprognosisinmanynontrophoblastic tumors[28-30，40].Prostate-specific antigen（PSA），a serine protease belonging to the human kallikrein family，is best known as a prostate cancer biomarker.The expression of PSA is highly restricted to prostate epithelial cells in men and thus PSA is used extensively as a biomarker to screen for prostate cancer，to detect recurrence after definitive therapy，and to follow response to treatment[28，30，32].