《THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAW OF THE SEA》

Preface5

Contributors6

Acknowledgements7

Editorial Preface8

Table of Contents9

Chapter OneThe Environmental Law of the Sea:Historical DevelopmentDouglas M.Johnston17

A.The Rise of Environmentalism17

B.Antecedents of International Environmental Law20

1.Introduction20

2.The Traditional Framework of Customary International Law21

3.Early Treaty Arrangements(1815-1945)21

a)International Waterways and Lakes21

b) Wildlife Protection23

c) Plant and Animal Protection and Disease Control23

d) Conservation of the Living Resources of the Sea24

C.Environmental Hazard Control(1945-1972)25

1.Introduction25

2.The Regulatory Response to Unnatural Hazards27

a)Control of Environmentally Dangerous Weapons27

b) Regulation of Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy29

c) Regulation of Industrial Discharge and Waste Disposal30

d) Prevention and Control of Ship-Generated Pollution30

3.The Governability of Technocracy34

D.Protection and Conservation of the Marine Environment(1945-1972)37

1.Introduction:The Growth of Ocean Technology and Science37

2.Changing Attitudes,Institutions,and Concepts(1962-1972)39

a)The Advent of Environmentalism39

b) The Re-Birth of IMCO40

c) The Pardo Vision of Ocean Space41

3.Pre-Stockholm Approaches to Marine Conservation41

a)Introduction41

b) Conservation of Marine Species42

c) Prevention and Control of Marine Pollution46

4.The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment(1972)46

E.Conservation Prospects at UNCLOS Ⅲ(1973)48

1.The U.N.Seabed Committee(1968-1973)48

a)Legacy of Geneva Law48

b) Perceptions of Hazard and Crisis49

c) Need for Conceptual Development50

d) Rise of the Coastal State50

2.The Conservation Agenda for UNCLOS Ⅲ51

Notes54

Chapter TwoLiving Resources of the OceanCyrille de Klemm71

A.Introduction71

B.The Living Resources of the Ocean72

1.The Nature of the Resources72

2.The Exploitation of the Resources73

3.The Threats to the Resources74

a)Overexploitation75

b) Habitat Destruction76

c) Pollution77

d) Introduction of Alien Species78

4.The Conservation of the Resources79

a)Ecological Processes and Life-Support Systems79

b) Genetic Diversity79

c) Sustainable Utilization79

C.Basic Legal and Institutional Requirements for Resources Conservation and Management85

1.Jurisdiction85

2.Research85

3.Regulations86

4.Enforcement88

5.Institutional Arrangements89

D.The Development of Marine Conservation Law90

1.The Traditional Law of Fisheries90

a)Introduction90

b) The Legal Regime of the Sea90

c) Early Fisheries Agreements92

2.The Codification of the Law of Fisheries-UNCLOSI94

a)Jurisdiction95

b) Conservation,Exploitation and the Problem of the New Entrants97

c) Institutions98

3.From UNCLOS Ⅰ to UNCLOS Ⅲ(1958-1973)98

a)The Development of Ocean Exploitation98

b) The Conclusion of New Fisheries Agreements99

c) Research100

d) The Control of the Threats Affecting Living Resources102

e) The United Nations Agencies and the Conservation of Marine Living Resources109

f) Conclusion-The Extension of Coastal State Jurisdiction117

E.The New Regime of the Sea120

1.The New Convention on the Law of the Sea120

a)Introduction120

b) Jurisdiction122

c) Regulation of Fisheries126

d) Conservation of Living Resources129

e) Other Aspects of the New Convention which are Relevant to the Conservation of Living Resources142

f) Conclusion147

2.The Times of UNCLOS Ⅲ149

a)Fisheries149

b) The Regional Seas Programme156

c) The Advent of Coastal Zone Management and the Development of Marine Protected Areas158

d) The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals161

F.General Conclusions163

1.Institutional Arrangements164

a)Inter-governmental Co-ordinating Body165

b) Regional arrangements166

c) National Centres166

d) Conclusion167

2.Fisheries167

a)Obligation of Coastal States in Areas under their Jurisdiction167

b) Stocks Shared between Neighbouring EEZs169

c) Stocks Shared between the EEZ and an Adjacent Area of the High Sea169

d) Highly Migratory Species170

e) Marine Mammals171

f) Anadromous and Catadromous Species171

g) High Seas171

h) Incidental Take172

i) Fisheries Research172

a Protection of Species172

4.Protection of Habitats173

a)Commercial Species174

b) Other Species175

c) Marine Protected Areas175

5.Pollution176

6.Introduction of Alien Species178

7.Compensation for Damages178

Notes180

Chapter ThreePrevention and Control of Marine PollutionMartine Rémond-Gouilloud193

ⅠIntroduction Martine Remond-Gouilloud A.Pollution of the Marine Environment The Range of Harms and Hazards193

B.Problems of Definition193

C.Classification of Pollutants194

D.Sources of Marine Pollution196

1.Vessel-Source Pollution196

2.Pollution by Dumping197

3.Land-Based Pollution197

4.Pollution from Seabed Activities197

5.Pollution from Deep-Ocean Mining198

E.Legal Approaches to Marine Pollution Control198

F.The Need for Legal Development202

ⅡPollution from Vessels Jan Schneider A.Scope of the General Problem203

B.Responses to Particular Problems204

1.Introduction204

2.Global Agreements205

3.Regional Agreements207

4.National Laws208

C.Negotiation of "Umbrella Treaty" Provisions at UNCLOS Ⅲ209

D.Processes and Mechanisms for the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment212

E.Problem Areas for Clarification or Progressive Development of International Law Related to Vessel-Source Pollution214

F.Conclusion217

ⅢPollution from DumpingNorman G.Letalik217

A.Scope of the Problem217

B.Global Responses to Ocean Dumping219

1.Introduction219

2.The Dumping Convention and its Impact on the Stockholm Conference and UNCLOS Ⅲ220

3.The London Dumping Convention221

4.Other Global Measures dealing with Ocean Dumping224

a)The Stockholm Conference224

b)UNCLOS Ⅲ224

c) Other forums225

C.Regional Responses to Ocean Dumping225

1.The Oslo Dumping Convention225

2.The Helsinki Convention226

3.The Barcelona Protocol on Dumping227

4.Other Regional Developments227

D.National Responses to Ocean Dumping228

E.Conclusion229

ⅣLand-Based PollutionMartine Remond-Guilloud230

A.Scope and Nature of the Problem230

1.Introduction230

2.Special Characteristics of the Problem231

a)Diversity of Causes231

b) Importance of National Regulation236

c) Inadequacy of Traditional Liability Provisions236

B.Legal and Institutional Responses237

1.National Responses237

2.Regional Responses238

a)Introduction238

b) Northern and Western Europe239

c) The Mediterranean240

d)Red Sea and Gulf of Aden242

e) Other Regions242

3.Global Responses242

C.Conclusions244

1.National Legislation244

2.Regional Co-operation244

3.Integrated Planning245

ⅤPollution from Seabed ActivitiesMartine Remond-Gouilloud245

A.The Nature and Scope of the Problem245

1.The Threat to the Offshore Environment245

2.The History of Environmental Injury in the Offshore246

a)Santa Barbara247

b) Ekofisk247

c) IXTOC 1247

B.The Global Response248

C.The Regional Response251

D.The National Response251

E.Special Problems253

1.Preparedness253

2.Liability and Compensation Issues254

F.Conclusion258

ⅥPollution from Deep Ocean MiningJames N.Barnes259

A.Scope of the Problem259

1.Introduction259

2.Potential Environmental Impacts Associated with Nodule Recovery260

3.Potential Environmental Impacts Associated with Processing261

B.Environmental Responses at UNCLOS Ⅲ262

1.Introduction262

2.Environmental Obligations262

3.Amendments and Revisions264

4.Decision-Making Procedures264

C.Priority Requirements265

1.General Requirements for Deep Ocean Mining265

2.Need for more Research and Information266

3.Need for a Comprehensive System of Environmental Management267

4.Need for Establishment of Protected Areas267

5.Need for Avoidance of Conflicts of Interest269

6.Need for Development of Standards and Measures270

7.Need for Public Participation and Access to Information270

8.Need for Interim Arrangements271

Notes272

Chapter FourDouglas Regional Approaches to the Protection and Conservation of the Marine EnvironmentM.Johnston and Lawrence M.G.Enomoto285

A.Introduction285

1.Regions and Regionalism285

2.Marine Regions and Marine Regionalism286

3.Regional Arrangements and UNCLOS Ⅲ287

B.Regional Arrangements for the Protection and Conservation of the Marine Environment288

1.Regional Agreements288

2.Regional Organizations304

C.Regional Developments(1945-1973)311

1.The Pre-Stockholm Years(1945-1972)311

a)Introduction311

b) Conservation of Marine Species311

c) Prevention and Control of Marine Pollution313

2.Marine Regionalism and the Stockholm Conference(1972)313

a)Introduction313

b) Conservation of Marine Species314

c) Prevention and Control of Marine Pollution316

d) General317

3.Marine Regionalism and the UN Sea-Bed Committee(1968-1973)317

a)Introduction317

b) Conservation of Marine Species320

c) Prevention and Control of Marine Pollution321

4.Conclusions321

D.Regional Developments(1973-1980)323

1.Regional Reactions to Extended Jurisdiction323

2.Regional Seas Programme(UNEP)324

a)Introduction324

b) The Mediterranean327

c) The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden330

d) The Arabian-Persian Gulf330

e) West Africa331

f) The Caribbean331

g) East Asian Seas332

h) Southwest Pacific333

i) Southeast Pacific334

j) Southwest Atlantic334

k) East Africa334

l) Conclusions334

3.Other UN Regional Programmes Concerned with the Protection and Conservation of the Marine Environment337

a)FAO337

b) ECOSOC339

c) UNESCO344

d) IMCO345

e) UNDP346

f) UN Regional Training Programmes347

4.Other Regional Organizational Arrangements for the Protection and Conservation of the Marine Environment348

a)Introduction348

b) Baltic348

c) Asia and the Pacific349

d) Antarctic352

E.Conclusions353

1.The Regional Level of Treatment353

2.The Role of Regional Co-operation in the Protection and Conservation of the Marine Environment355

3.The Role of Regional Arrangements in the Protection and Conservation of the Marine Environment355

a)General355

b) Regional Agreements356

c) Regional Organizations357

4.Final Considerations358

a)General358

b) Conservation of Marine Species358

c) Prevention and Control of Marine Pollution360

Notes362

Chapter FiveThe Environmental Law of the Sea:Conclusions and RecommendationsDouglas M.Johnston and Cyrille de Klemm in collaboration with Frangoise Burhenne-Guilmin and Daniel B.Navid387

A.General Conclusions387

1.Introduction387

2.The Draft Convention on the Law of the Sea:Implementation of the Obligations of Major Environmental Significance387

3.World Ocean Conservation Strategy392

4.Adoption of Global Treaties393

5.Global Co-ordination394

6.Regional Co-operation395

B.Recommendations395

1.Discharge of existing obligations395

2.Adoption of the projected Convention on the Law of the Sea396

3.Discharge of environmental provisions of the Convention on the Law of the Sea396

4.Review of existing environmental treaties397

5.Global co-ordination397

6.Role of UN agencies398

7.Regional co-ordination398

8.Role of UNEP's Regional Seas Programme398

9.Role of FAO's Regional Fishery Development and Management Assistance Programme399

10.Role of UNESCO's regional research programmes399

11.Role of UN Economic Commissions399

12.Development of ocean management400

13.Development of coastal zone management400

14.Protection of habitats and establishment of protected areas400

15.Preservation of rare and endangered species402

16.Introduction of alien species403

17.Fishery management and conservation:protection of critical habitats403

18.Fishery management and conservation:unit management404

19.Fishery management and conservation:shared stocks404

20.Fishery management and conservation:straddling stocks404

21.Fishery management and conservation:total allowable catch405

22.Fishery management and conservation:early warning system406

23.Fishery management and conservation:assessment of socio-economic aspects of the new law of the sea406

24.Incidental take:research and conservation requirements407

25.Incidental take:emergency and preventive measures407

26.Highly migratory species:amendment of Annex407

27.Highly migratory species:regional arrangements408

28.Marine mammals:regulation of whaling408

29.Anadromous stocks and catadromous species:listing409

30.Anadromous stocks and catadromous species:conclusion of agreements409

31.Environmental assessment:assistance409

32.Deep Ocean mining:environmental protection410

33.Marine pollution:harmonized methodologies411

34.Marine pollution emergencies:duty to notify411

35.Marine pollution emergencies:contingency planning411

36.Marine pollution from land-based sources:interregional comparisons411

37.Marine pollution from sea-bed activities:environmental standards412

38.Marine pollution associated with shore-based oil refineries:model contract413

39.Marine pollution by dumping:wastes,toxic substances,and radioactive materials413

40.Marine pollution from vessels:standard setting414

41.Marine pollution from vessels:traffic management414

42.Marine pollution from vessels:special areas415

43.Marine pollution from vessels:emergency assistance to ships in distress415

44.Marine pollution from vessels:wrecks416

45.Marine pollution:ice-covered areas416

46.Marine pollution:responsibility,liability and compensation416

47.Marine pollution:review of shipping law417

48.Marine scientific research:regional arrangements417

49.Development and transfer of marine technology:national training and research418