《COMMERCIAL UTILIZATION OF OUTER SPACE LAW AND PRACTICE》

INTRODUCTION1

ⅠSPACE LAW IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE5

1 Introduction5

2 International Cooperation in Space Activities5

3 International Governmental Cooperation6

4 International Non-Governmental Cooperation7

5 International Non-Governmental Organizations dealing with Space Law9

6The United Nations Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Special Role in the Definition of International Space Law10

6.1 The Consensus Procedure11

6.2 International Space Law Conventions13

6.3 Evaluation15

ⅡCOMMERCIALIZATION OF SPACE ACTIVITIES WITHIN THE TERMS OF THE CORPUS IURIS SPATIALIS17

1 Introduction17

2 Reassessment of International Space Law19

3 Determination of the Concept Commercial or Commercialization19

4 Accommodation of the Concept within the Context of the Outer Space Treaty20

5 Other Established Instruments of International Space Law24

6Assessment of the Moon Agreement24

6.1 Evaluation26

6.2 The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle in the Moon Agreement29

7 Conclusion30

ⅢLEGAL IMPLICATIONS OF SPACE TRANSPORTATION33

1 Introduction33

2 Definition of Space Transportation35

3 Space Transportation Systems36

4 The Legal Regime on the Earth's Surface38

5 The Legal Regime of the High Seas44

6The Legal Regime of Airspace46

6.1 Definition/Delimitation of Outer Space47

7The Legal Regime of Outer Space49

7.1Jurisdiction and Control52

7.1.1 The International Space Station56

7.2 Unaffected Ownership57

7.3 State Responsibility58

7.4 International Organizations64

7.5State Liability64

7.5.1 The International Space Station67

8 Evaluation68

9 Future Approach68

10The Space Plane and the Law72

10.1 Space Plane Systems74

10.2 The Legal Regime76

ⅣSATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS-INTERNATIONAL REGULATION AND PRACTICE79

1 Introduction79

2 International Cooperation81

3The International Telecommunication Union81

3.1 The Regulatory Authority of the ITU82

3.2 Trends towards new principles and regulations87

3.3 The GSO:an Issue of Concern89

3.4 The 'Planning Instrument'91

4 The Legal Regime of the GSO95

5 Protection against Damage of Satellites in the GSO97

6 ITU Regulatory Competence Reassessed102

7UNCOPUOS and the GSO103

7.1 Towards a new legal status of the GSO106

8 Concluding Remarks108

ⅤCOMMERCIAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SECTOR111

1 Introduction111

AInternational Telecommunications Satellite Organization:INTELSAT112

1 Introduction112

2 The Definitive Arrangements113

3 Commercial Aspects115

4The Changing Scene and its Influence on INTELSAT119

4.1 Latest Developments120

5Assessment of INTELSAT'S policy within its legal framework121

5.1 Pricing Policy121

5.2 Competing Space Communications Systems and Article XIV121

6 Dispute Settlement127

7 Procurement and patent policy128

8 The legal status of INTELSAT130

9 Applicable Law131

10 INTELSAT:Subject of International Law132

11 Liability132

12 Conclusion133

BINTERSPUTNIK133

1 Introduction133

2 Purpose and Legal Status134

3 Evaluation of Commercial Aspects135

CInternational Maritime Satellite Organization:INMARSAT137

1 Introduction137

2 Purpose of the Organization138

3 Commercial Aspects139

4 Function of Assembly and Council141

5 Juridical Status141

6 Liability141

7 Settlement of Disputes143

8 Competitive Space Segments144

9 Procurement of Goods and Services145

10 Intellectual Property Rights145

11 Peaceful Purposes146

12 Extension of Purpose147

13Further Developments152

13.1 Distress and Safety Communication Systems152

13.2 Position Determination and Navigation Services153

13.3 Land Mobile Communications154

13.4 Meeting the challenges ahead155

14 Status Report156

15 Evaluation158

DEuropean Telecommunications Satellite Organization:EUTELSAT158

1 Introduction158

2 The History of European Cooperation in Space Activities159

3ESA Convention160

3.1 ESA's Objectives161

3.2 Mandatory and Optional Activities162

3.3 Operational Activities163

3.4 Patent Policy164

3.5 Dispute Settlement170

3.6 The Growing Importance of Operational Programmes170

3.7 Recent Development in ESA Policy172

3.8 The European Long-Term Space Plan173

3.9 The Just Return Principle175

4 Interim EUTELSAT176

5EUTELSAT179

5.1Scope of EUTELSAT's Activities and its Commercial Aspects180

5.1.1 Status Report181

5.2 Conflict of Interests182

5.3 Settlement of Disputes185

5.4 Applicable Law186

5.5 Procurement Policy186

5.6 Intellectual Property187

5.7 Liability188

5.8 Conclusion189

EEuropean Meteorological Satellite Organization:EUMETSAT190

1 Introduction190

2 History190

3 The METEOSAT Programme191

4 EUMETSAT192

5 Conclusion195

FArab Corporation for Space Communications:ARABSAT196

1 Introduction196

2 The Agreement196

3 Contributions versus potential interests198

4 Commercial Aspects199

5 Early status and future prospects199

6 Evaluation200

GSatellite Communications Regulation and European Economic Integration201

1 Introduction201

2Developments within the E.E.C.towards a Single Market202

2.1 The Telecommunications Sector203

3 Policy and Regulation of Telecommunications204

4 Extending the Principles of Community Telecommunications Policy to Satellite Communications206

5 Conclusion209

ANNEX:INMARSAT Investment Table210

ⅥDIRECT BROADCASTING BY SATELLITE-PRACTICAL ASPECTS AND LEGAL IMPLICATIONS213

1Introduction213

1.1 DBS and the International Telecommunications Union214

2 Transborder Broadcasting in Europe216

3 The Legal Status of DBS and the United Nations220

4 Broadcasting and the Freedom of Information in Historical Perspective226

5 Conclusion228

ⅦREMOTE SENSING OF THE EARTH FROM OUTER SPACE:LEGAL IMPLICATIONS AROUND A MULTI-FACETED ISSUE229

1 Introduction229

2 Remote Sensing in Air Space229

3 Remote Sensing in Outer Space230

4Fields of Application231

4.1 Technical Developments and Commercialization Trends231

5 Legal Status234

6 The Space Law Conventions234

7 Other Rules of International Law235

8 Different Views among States236

9 Access-the Situation in Practice237

10 Negotiations within the UNCOPUOS238

11 Efforts at Reconciliation240

12 The Legal Status of the Principles244

13 An International Agency245

14 UNCOPUOS:Recent Developments248

15 International Cooperation on a Commercial Basis249

16 Existing Policies and Regulations on Data Dissemination250

17 Evaluation255

ⅧPROTECTING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN SPACE ENDEAVOUR257

1 Introduction257

2Copyrights and Space Communication259

2.1 Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite260

2.2 Direct Broadcasting by Satellite262

2.3 Indirect Satellite Broadcasting263

2.4 Applicability of Non-Voluntary Licensing to DBS264

2.5 The European Scene265

3 Commercialization of Space Activities and the Right of Invention266

4 Commercialization of Remote Sensing from Space269

5 International Cooperation275

ⅨPRIVATE ENTERPRISE AND SPACE LAW277

1 Introduction277

2 Indirect Involvement278

3 Direct Involvement279

4 Permissibility of Private Activities in Outer Space279

5 National Activity281

6US Policies and Legislation282

6.1 Launch Services282

6.2 Remote Sensing286

6.3Satellite Communications289

6.3.1 New Developments292

6.4 Direct Broadcasting by Satellite295

6.5 Materials Processing in Space296

6.6 Government Aid in Space Industrialization300

6.7 Recent US Commercial Space Policy Stimulating Private Enterprise Involvement302

7National Space Legislation in the European States303

7.1 The Swedish Space Activities Act305

7.2 The United Kingdom Outer Space Act306

8 Multinational Regulation within ESA308

9 Areas of Future National Regulation309

10 Conflict of Laws310

11 Securing Private Enterprise Interests311

ⅩINSURANCE AND THE COMMERCIALIZATION OF OUTER SPACE315

1 Introduction315

2 Property Insurance317

3Liability Insurance319

3.1 The NASA Act on Insurance and Indemnification320

3.2 Commercial Satellites322

3.3 Expendable Launch Vehicles323

4 Product Liability325

5 Personal Accident Insurance of Space Crews328

6 Property Insurance and Private Enterprise329

7 Case History of Space Insurance Claims330

8The Space Insurance Market334

8.1 Government Involvement337

9 Evaluation and Outlook338

ⅪSETTLEMENT OF SPACE LAW DISPUTES341

1 Introduction341

2Assessment of Existing Procedures343

2.1 The Outer Space Treaty and International Law in General343

2.2 The Moon Agreement345

2.3 The Liability Convention346

2.4Other International Space Law Regulations347

2.4.1 The Remote Sensing Principles of 1987348

2.4.2 Commercial Intergovernmental Organizations348

3 Recent Efforts to Establish an International Instrument for the Settlement of Disputes in Space Law350

4 Draft Convention on the Settlement of Space Law Disputes353

5 Recognition of Private Interests356

6 Final Remarks356

ANNEX A:Convention on the Settlement of Space Law Disputes359

ANNEX B:UN Res.41/65:Principles Relating to Remote Sensing385

BIBLIOGRAPHY391

INDEX421