《THE CHANGING STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW》

PART ONECHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND LAW3

1.CHANGES IN THE ScOPE AND OBJEcTIVES OF INTERSTATE RELATIONS3

Structure of International Relations in the Formative Era of International Law4

The Changing Character of International Relations5

The Impact of Democratisation7

The Impact of Ideological Divisions8

The Concern with International Economic Development11

The Concern with Survival12

The Futility of War13

The Pursuit of Collective Security15

The Politics of Coexistence15

Concern for Survival： The Threat to Mankind’s Resources16

2.GROUP LOYALTIES AND NATIONAL ALLEGIANCE IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS20

The Internationalisation of Economic Interests21

Industrial Competition and International Cartels25

Public Control over Private International Business Activities26

Conflicts between Corporate Loyalties and Public National Policies29

3.NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY IN OUR TIME31

Small Nations and the United Nations32

Great Powers and the United Nations34

The Anachronism of National Sovereignty35

International， Transnational and Supranational Society37

4.THE ROLE.OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS40

Welfare Philosophy and the Concern for the Common Man40

The Helplessness of the Individual in Contemporary Society42

5.CO-OPERATION AND CONFLIcT AMONG NATIONS45

Power， Values， Ideology and Interest： Current Defiinitions45

The “ National Interest ”47

“ Power ” in International Relations48

Ideals and Power in International Politics50

Conflicts of Power， Conflicts of National Interest and Con-icts of Ideology51

Conflicts of Power and Conflicts of Interest53

National Interest， Value Conflicts and International Law55

International Law as an Agent of Progress58

6.THE CHANGING STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW60

The Three Levels of Contemporary International Law60

The International Law of Coexistence60

International Law of Co-operation： Universal Concerns61

International Law of Co-operation： Regional Groupings62

The New Dimensions of International Law64

The Expanding Scope of International Law67

PART TWOTHE PLACE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW75

7.NATURAL LAW AND POSITIVISM IN INTERNATIONAL LAW75

A Return to the Law of Nature？77

Antinomies in International Law79

8.THEREALITY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW81

Sovereignty and Sanction in International Law82

Recognition and Observance as Foundations of International Law86

Co-operative International Law and the Sanctions of Non-Participation88

9.NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY AND SUPRANATIONAL ORDER IN THE EURO-PEAN COMMUNITIES96

The Communities as a New International “ Order ”96

The Constitutional Structure of the Communities98

Law-Making Powers of the Communities and Their Relation to the National Legal Orders of the Community States99

Community Norms and National Laws—The Question of Hierarchy106

The Relation of Community Law to General International Law110

Some Conclusions113

PART THREEPRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF LEGAL CHANGE IN INTERNATIONAL LAW117

10.PROCESSES AND INSTRUMENTALITIESOF LEGAL CHANGE IN INTER-NATIONAL LAw117

Processes of Legal Change in Municipal Law117

Legal Change in International Society—Some Characteristic Differences118

The Sources of Modern International Law120

Custom121

Treaties123

Modifications of the Unanimity Principle in Law-Making Treaties125

Reservations to Multilateral Treaties126

Departures from the Unanimity Rule in the Revision of Treaties129

“ Inter-Temporal Law ” and Legal Change130

Desuetude and Legal Change in International Law132

International Agreements134

The Role of Quasi-Legislative Bodies135

The Role of Courts141

The Role of National Courts146

The Role of Doctrine148

The Interaction of the Various Prc cesses of Legal Change—an Example149

11.NEW FIELDs OF INTERNATIONAL LAw152

A Preliminary Survey152

International Constitutional Law153

International Administrative Law159

International Labour Law162

International Criminal Law167

International Commercial Law170

International Economic Development Law176

International Corporation Law181

International Anti-Trust Law184

International Tax Law185

New Techniques in International Law186

12.THE USES OF “ GENERAL PRINCIPLES ” IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW188

The Intermingling of Public and Private Law190

The Use and Adaptation of General Principles of Law in the Evolution of Public International Law195

Three Types of “ General Principles ”196

12.THE USES OF “GENERAL PRINCIPLES”IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAw—continued.200

International Concession Agreements and the Contrat Administrati f200

Unjust Enrichment206

PART FOURTHE NEW SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW213

13.PUBLICINTERNATIONAL CORPORATIONS AS SUBJECTS OF INTER-NATIONAL LAw213

The Privileged Position of States213

The Status of Public International Corporations216

The Intergovernmental Corporation of Private Law219

14.PRIVATE CORPORATIONS AS SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW221

Legal Status of Private Corporations in the European Com-munities224

Indirect Attempts to Strengthen the Position of Private Cor-porations in International Law225

International Legal Controls over Private Corporations228

15.THE INDIVIDUAL AS A SUBJECT OF INTERNATIONAL LAw232

The Individual as a Subject of Rights in International Law234

The Position of the Individual under the European Conven-tion of Human Rights242

Group Representation of the Individual244

The Legal Responsibility of Individuals in International Law245

PART FIVEPROBLEMS AND TRENDS OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION253

16.THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION OF SECURITY AND THE USE OF FORCE253

The Defiinition of Aggression254

Regional Defence Organisations258

The Threat of Total Destruction and Self-Defence259

“Indirect” Aggression， National Sovereignty， and Collective Security262

Some Conclusions273

17.TRENDS AND PATTERNS OF INTERNATIONAL WELFARE ORGANISATION275

The Constitutional and the Functional Approach to Inter-national Organisation275

17.TRENDS AND PATTERNS OF INTERNATIONAL WELFARE ORGANISATION—continued.277

Patterns of Internatienal Organisation277

The Interrelation of Objectives， Powers， and Extension in International Organisations278

The European Communities and International Organisation286

Legal Status， Financial Autonomy and the Trend of Inter- national Organisation288

Operational Independence and Financial Autonomy291

The Moral Personality of International Organisations292

Conclusion293

PART SIXMANKIND’S DIVISIONS AND THE UNIVERSALITY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW297

18.A UNIVERSALINTERNATIONAL LAW OF COEXISTENCE AND THE WORLD’S MAJOR CULTURAL ORDERS297

Minimum Conditions of Coexistence298

National Sovereignty， Observance of Promises， and the Use of Force： A Comparison between the Attitudes of the Major Legal Order298

The Western Democratic Approach299

The Binding Character of Promises300

National Interest and International Law302

Latin American Attitudes303

Islamic Legal Values and International Law306

Hindu Philosophy and International Law309

Chinese Civilisation and International Law311

The Modem State Practice of Asian States313

19.UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND THE UNIVERSALITY OF INTER-NATIONAL LAW317

Conflicts of Interest between Developed and Developing Countries317

Disguise of Conflicts of Interest as Philosophies of Value321

Panch Shila， Buddhism and Coexistence322

20.CONFLICTSOF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AND THE UNIVERSALITY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW325

Imperialist Systems and the Acceptance of International Law325

Modern Communism and International Law327

The Role of the Treaty in the Soviet Theory of International Law333

Some Conclusions on the Communist Approach to Inter-national Law336

21.STATE CONTROL OVER ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THE UNIVERSALITY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW341

State Control and Private Trading—Myth and Reality341

State Trading and Sovereign Immunities343

State Trading and the Duties of Abstention in the Law of Neutrality346

The Status of the Government-Trading Corporation in International Law349

State Trading and the Most-Favoured-Nation Clause352

State Trading and Restrictive Practices356

Co-operation between State Traders and Private Traders358

PART SEVEN365

22.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS365

Ⅰ.Changes in the Structure of International Relations365

Ⅱ.The Place of International Law369

Ⅲ.Principles and Processes of Change in International Law370

Ⅳ.The New Subjects of International Law374

Ⅴ.Scope and Patterns of International Organisation376

Ⅵ.Mankind’s Divisions and the Universality of Inter-national Law379

List of Writings Cited383

Index397