《A HANDBOOK ON THE NEW LAW OF THE SEA 1》

Part Ⅰ The sea and the codification of its law1

Chapter 1 THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL CHARACTER OF THE NEW LAW OF THE SEA3

Section 1.General3

Para.1.The marine environment is a single entity3

Para.2.The law of the sea must be universal5

Para.3.The inequality of States in matters relating to the sea7

Para.4.The package deal on the law of the sea:a blending of its various dimensions8

Section 2.The geographical dimension9

Section 3.The technological dimension14

Para.1.Protection of living resources and planning for their exploitation14

Para.2.The transfer of marine technology16

Section 4.The economic dimension19

Para.1.Access to resources in the zones under national jurisdiction and economic needs19

Para.2.The exploitation of the sea-bed,or the law of the unpredictable21

Section 5.The socio-political dimension23

Para.1.Conditions for the deployment of naval forces24

Para.2.The dialectical relationship between unilateral measures and multilateral negotiation26

Para.3.The decision-making process in the new international institution28

Chapter 2 SOURCES OF THE LAW OF THE SEA29

Section 1.General observations29

Division A.Sources of international law and the law of the sea29

Para.1.The notion of sources29

Para.2.The Statute of the International Court of Justice(ICJ)30

Para.3.The question of sources concerning the law of the sea31

Para.4.Jus cogens33

Para.5.The resolutions of international organizations34

Division B.Unilateral acts36

Para.1.Unilateral acts and international custom36

Para.2.The 200-mile rule38

Para.3.Unilateral acts,conventions and the resolutions of national organizations41

Division C.Universalism and regionalism of the law of the sea42

Para.1.Preliminary considerations42

Para.2.Universalism44

Para.3.Regionalism45

Para.4.The dialectics of universalism and regionalism47

Para.5.The question of regional law and its autonomy49

Para.6.The meetings at Montevideo,Lima and Santo Domingo-territorial and patrimonial seas50

Para.7.African regionalism53

Para.8.Functional regionalism54

Para.9.Geographic regionalism54

Para.10.The role of international organizations57

Section 2.International custom60

Para.1.The role of international custom60

Para.2.Custom throughout history61

Para.3.Codification by the League of Nations66

Para.4.Codification by the United Nations68

Para.5.Regional codification:the case of the OAS70

Para.6.The first two United Nations conferences72

Para.7.International custom in the 1960-1982 period76

Para.8.International custom and its relation to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea77

Para.9.The principle of a common heritage of mankind as a customary norm81

Section 3.International treaties/the 1982 Convention82

Para.1.Historical precedents82

Para.2.The Geneva Conventions of 195884

Para.3.The resumption of the codification process/the 1982 Convention86

Para.4.The general provisions of the 1982 Convention89

Para.5.Final provisions91

Para.6.Participation in the Convention93

Para.7.Final provisions(continued)101

Section 4.Judicial decisions111

Para.1.Judicial decisions:auxiliary sources111

Para.2.The contributions of the Permanent Court of International Justice114

Para.3.The contributions of the International Court of Justice115

Chapter 3 THE PARDO DECLARATION AND THE SIX YEARS OF THE SEA-BED COMMITTEE141

Section 1.The Pardo declaration and the origins of the Sea-Bed Committee142

Division A.The question raised by ambassador Pardo143

Division B.Progress of the doctrine before Pardo144

Section 2.Organization of the Committee and methods of work148

Division A.The creation of official groups148

Division B.The establishment of informal groups150

Division C.Groups of States152

Para.1.Groups formed for the defence of identical concerns153

Para.2.Traditional groups of a political and economic nature155

Section 3.The preparation of norms for a future convention156

Division A.The new concepts resulting from the extension of sovereignty157

Para.1.The principle of free transit passage in international straits157

Para.2.Outlining the economic zone158

Division B.The transition from peaceful uses to the concept of the common heritage of mankind158

Chapter 4 THE THIRD UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE LAW OF THE SEA163

Section 1.The general setting163

Division A.Within the United Nations163

Para.1.Procedure163

Para.2.Agenda163

Division B.Outside the United Nations163

Para.1.General163

Para.2.The oil crisis164

Para.3.Viet Nam164

Para.4.Detente164

Para.5.European integration164

Para.6.Recession164

Section 2.Organization164

Division A.Mandate164

Division B.Participation165

Division C.Plenary165

Para.1.Mandate165

Para.2.Composition166

Para.3.President of the Conference166

Para.4.Rapporteur-General166

Para.5.Bureau166

Division D.Committees166

Para.1.First Committee166

Para.2.Second Committee167

Para.3.Third Committee167

Para.4.Drafting Committee168

Para.5.General Committee169

Division E.Negotiating groups169

Para.1.Established by the Conference169

Para.2.Established by the President or a Committee Chairman169

Para.3.Established by delegates169

Para.4.Established by interest170

Para.5.Established by region or subregion171

Para.6.Formed ad hoc171

Division F.Formal procedure171

Para.1.The "Gentleman's Agreement"171

Para.2.The rules of procedure172

Para.3.Practice173

Section 3.The texts174

Division A.Background174

Division B.The Informal Single Negotiating Text174

Division C.Revisions174

Division D.Procedural reaction to the ICNT174

Division E.Adoption of the Convention175

Para.1.Formal amendments175

Para.2.Final text176

Division F.Implications of this procedure176

Para.1.Travaux preparatoires176

Para.2.The package deal176

Section 4.Summary of the sessions176

Section 5.The first session178

Section 6.The second session178

Division A.General178

Division B.The rules of procedure178

Division C.The First Committee178

Para.1.General178

Para.2.The system of exploitation179

Para.3.Basic conditions of exploitation179

Para.4.Economic implications180

Division D.The Second Committee180

Para.1.The procedural problem180

Para.2.Substantive results181

Division E.The Third Committee181

Para.1.Procedure181

Para.2.Protection and preservation of the marine environment181

Para.3.Marine scientific research182

Division F.Settlement of disputes183

Section 7.The third session183

Division A.General183

Division B.The First Committee184

Division C.The Second Committee184

Para.1.Procedure184

Para.2.The Informal Single Negotiating Text185

Division D.The Third Committee199

Para.1.Protection and preservation of the marine environment199

Para.2.Marine scientific research204

Para.3.Development and transfer of technology205

Section 8.The fourth session205

Division A.General205

Division B.The First Committee205

Para.1.Procedure205

Para.2.The Kissinger initiative205

Para.3.The issues206

Division C.The Second Committee208

Para.1.Procedure208

Para.2.Changes208

Para.3.Issues208

Division D.The Third Committee209

Para.1.Protection and preservation of the marine environment209

Para.2.Marine scientific research210

Division E.Informal Plenary211

Para.1.Dispute settlement obligations211

Para.2.Issues regarding dispute settlement'212

Section 9.The fifth session213

Division A.General213

Division B.Fisheries zones213

Para.1.Claims213

Para.2.Effects on the Conference213

Section 10.The sixth session214

Division A.General214

Division B.The First Committee214

Para.1.Negotiations214

Para.2.The ICNT214

Division C.The Second Committee216

Para.1.The Casteneda-Vindenes Group216

Para.2.Status of the economic zone216

Division D.The Third Committee217

Para.1.Marine scientific research217

Para.2.Protection and preservation of the marine environment219

Division E.Informal Plenary219

Para.1.Settlement of disputes219

Para.2.Preamble and final clauses219

Section 11.The seventh session219

Division A.Organization of work219

Para.1.The presidency219

Para.2.Revision of the ICNT220

Para.3.The negotiating groups220

Para.4.Other issues221

Division B.The First Committee222

Para.1.Negotiating Group 1222

Para.2.Negotiating Group 2222

Para.3.Negotiating Group 3222

Para.4.Unilateral legislation223

Division C.The Second Committee223

Para.1.General223

Para.2.Negotiating Group 4224

Para.3.Negotiating Group 5224

Para.4.Negotiating Group 6224

Para.5.Negotiating Group 7225

Division D.The Third Committee226

Para.1.Protection and preservation of the marine environment226

Para.2.Marine scientific research226

Division E.Informal Plenary226

Division F.The Drafting Committee226

Section 12.The eighth session226

Division A.General226

Division B.The First Committee227

Division C.The Second Committee227

Para.1.Negotiating Groups 4 and 5227

Para.2.Negotiating Group 6227

Para.3.Negotiating Group 7227

Division D.The Third Committee228

Division E.The Informal Plenary228

Section 13.The ninth session228

Division A.General228

Para.1.New texts228

Para.2.Deferred issues228

Division B.The First Committee230

Para.1.General230

Para.2.Uses in general230

Para.3.The parallel system230

Para.4.Denial of contracts230

Para.5.Interim production ceiling231

Para.6.Obligations of miners231

Para.7.The Sea-Bed Authority232

Para.8.The Review Conference233

Division C.The Second Committee233

Para.1.The continental shelf233

Para.2.Delimitation234

Para.3.Marine mammals234

Para.4.Innocent passage of warships234

Division D.The Third Committee234

Division E.Informal Plenary234

Para.1.General provisions234

Para.2.Final clauses235

Division F.Concluding plans237

Section 14.The tenth session237

Division A.The presidency237

Division B.The United States review238

Division C.The Draft Convention238

Para.1.Procedure238

Para.2.Sites238

Para.3.Participation239

Para.4.Preparatory Commission239

Section 15.The eleventh(and final)session239

Division A.Results of the United States review239

Division B.The green book240

Division C.The Group of Eleven240

Division D.Preparatory investment in pioneer activities241

Para.1.Negotiations241

Para.2.Resolution Ⅱ241

Para.3.Dispute settlement241

Para.4.Effect241

Division E.The Preparatory Commission242

Para.1.Functions242

Para.2.Participants242

Para.3.Procedures242

Division F.Parties to the Convention242

Para.1.The right to become a Party242

Para.2.National liberation movements242

Division G.Adoption of the Convention243

Para.1.Innocent passage of warships243

Para.2.Consensus243

Para.3.The vote243

Division H.Conclusion of the Conference244

Section 16.Epilogue:treaty law without signature244

Part Ⅱ The sea and its partitions245

Chapter 5 THE SEA UNDER NATIONAL COMPETENCE247

Section 1.Internal waters249

Para.1.Internal waters are subject to the sovereignty of the coastal State249

Para.2.Freedom of access252

Section 2.The territorial sea253

Division A.The dual nature of the territorial sea254

Para.1.Doctrinal oppositions254

Para.2.Duality of the legal regime257

Division B.The extent of the territorial sea262

Para.1.The breadth of the territorial sea262

Para.2.Method of calculating the points of departure of the territorial sea263

Para.3.The contiguous zone268

Section 3.Archipelagic States269

Para.1.The outward extension of sovereignty272

Para.2.Residual freedoms273

Section 4.The exclusive economic zone:the territorial influence275

Division A.A compromise formula:tempered territorialism277

Para.1.The economic zone is not the territorial sea278

Para.2.The economic zone is not the high seas.Legal nature of the zone284

Para.3.The "Castaneda compromise"288

Division B.The potentialities of sovereignty292

Para.1.From functional competences to territorial rights292

Para.2.From exclusive competence to discretionary power303

Annex.Extent of national claims over maritime zones308

Chapter 6 THE CONTINENTAL SHELF DEFINITION AND RULES APPLICABLE TO RESOURCES315

Section 1.Definition and background315

Division A.The physical fact:the extension of continents under the sea315

Division B.The economic importance of the resources of the continental margin320

Division C.Emergence and development of the legal concept of the continental shelf322

Para.1.The Truman Proclamation of 28 September 1945325

Para.2.From customary rules to rules laid down by agreement:the Convention on the Continental Shelf of 29 April 1958327

Para.3.The continental shelf in the "new law of the sea";the 1982 Convention329

Section 2.The legal concept of the continental shelf336

Division A.The nature of the continental shelf:the concept of natural prolongation336

Para.1.The origin of the concept of natural prolongation:from the Truman Proclamation to the North Sea Continental Shelf cases336

Para.2.The content of the concept of natural prolongation:nature and law338

Division B.The outer limits of the continental shelf344

Para.1.From nature to law:the definition in the 1958 Geneva Convention345

Para.2.Reverting to nature:the search for criteria deriving from equating the legal continental shelf with the continental margin348

Para.3.A difficult combination:the adoption of a set of alternative criteria(1980)351

Division C.The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf357

Para.1.How the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf is organized357

Para.2.How the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf functions359

Section 3.The legal regime governing the continental shelf's resources363

Division A.The rights of the coastal State363

Para.1.The scope of the coastal State's rights363

Para.2.The nature of the coastal State's rights367

Division B.Obligations of the coastal State371

Para.1.Continental shelf and jus communications371

Para.2.Payments and contributions by the coastal State with respect to the exploitation of the continental shelf375

Chapter 7 THE HIGH SEAS383

Section 1.The high seas are open to all States384

Subsection 1.The principle of freedom385

Division A.General theory of the principle of freedom385

Para.1.The evolution of the principle of freedom385

Para.2.The bases of the principle of freedom388

Division B.The different freedoms of the high seas389

Para.1.The recognized freedoms390

Para.2.The other freedoms and the limits to freedom392

Subsection 2.The principle of equality395

Division A.The equal rights of States on the high seas395

Para.1.Equality of access to the high seas for all States396

Para.2.Equality of use of the high seas for all States397

Division B.The guarantees of equal rights399

Para.1.The absence of individual State sovereignty on the high seas399

Para.2.The absence of collective State sovereignty on the high seas399

Section 2.The high seas are subject to law400

Subsection 1.The requirement that all ships be subject to a juridical system401

Division A.The nationality of a ship401

Para.1.The conditions governing the attribution of nationality401

Para.2.The penalties for non-compliance with the conditions governing the attribution of nationality401

Division B.The legal status of ships406

Para.1.The principle of the exclusivity of the flag State407

Para.2.The exceptions to the principle of the exclusivity of the flag State408

Subsection 2.The exercise of policing functions by the flag State414

Division A.The flag State and the drawing up of the rules for policing the high seas414

Para.1.The policing rules intended to protect men and property on the high seas415

Para.2.The policing rules intended to prevent the high seas from becoming a place of refuge for the commission of unlawful acts417

Division B.Respect for the policing rules on the high seas419

Para.1.Searching out and verifying violations of the policing rules on the high seas420

Para.2.Enforcement with regard to violations of the policing rules on the high seas422

Chapter 8 THE DELIMITATION OF MARINE SPACES BETWEEN STATES WITH OPPOSITE OR ADJACENT COASTS425

Section 1.Introduction425

Section 2.Substantive rules on maritime delimitation439

Subsection 1.The territorial sea and internal maritime waters439

Subsection 2.The contiguous zone442

Subsection 3.The exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf445

Division A.The rules of 1958 and their evolution445

Para.1.Introduction445

Para.2.Evolution of international case-law:general principles447

Para.3.Problems relating to the implementation of the general principles identified by court and tribunals462

Para.4.Summary476

Division B.The provisions of the 1982 Convention477

Para.1.The formula inserted in Articles 74(1)and 83(1)477

Para.2.Critical analysis of the formula contained in Articles 74(1)and 83(1)480

Para.3.Summary485

Subsection 4.Special problems486

Division A.Introduction486

Division B.Low-tide elevations486

Division C.Permanent harbour works488

Division D.Artificial islands,installations and structures489

Section 3.Procedural rules in matters of maritime delimitation490

Subsection 1.The stability of maritime delimitations and the publicity to be given to such delimitations490

Subsection 2.Settlement of disputes relating to maritime delimitation491

Subsection 3.Attitude to be observed pending the settlement of a maritime delimitation dispute495

Section 4.General summary495

Chapter 9 RIGHT OF ACCESS TO THE SEA AND FREEDOM OF TRANSIT501

Section 1.Introduction501

Section 2.The maritime rights of land-locked States502

Division A.The right of land-locked States to sail ships under their maritime flag502

Division B.The access of ships of land-locked States to maritime ports505

Section 3.Transit to and from the sea for land-locked States508

Division A.The evolving law of transit508

Division B.The present regime517

Para.1.Recognition and scope of the right of access to the sea517

Para.2.The implementation of the right of access to the sea520

Chapter 10 THE ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC REGIONS525

Section 1.General remarks525

Subsection 1.The dearth of express provisions in the general conventions525

Subsection 2.Differences in the geographical data of the Arctic and the Antarctic525

Division A.Common features525

Division B.The Arctic526

Division C.The Antarctic526

Subsection 3.Common provisions527

Division A.Pollution of the marine environment527

Division B.Baselines528

Division C.Drifting ice-packs528

Section 2.The Arctic529

Subsection 1.Definition of the zone529

Subsection 2.Claims and jurisdictions532

Division A.General features532

Division B.Spitsbergen532

Division C.Greenland533

Division D.The theory of sectors534

Para.1.Retrospective534

Para.2.Position of the USSR535

Para.3.Position of Canada536

Para.4.Position of the United States537

Para.5.Position of Denmark537

Para.6.Position of Norway538

Division E.Problems not yet solved538

Para.1.Spitsbergen538

Para.2.The Barents Sea539

Subsection 3.Economic zones and biological resources539

Division A.Fishing zones539

Division B.The Barents Sea540

Subsection 4.Continental shelf and international Area540

Division A.Application of the 1982 Convention540

Division B.Spitsbergen and the Barents Sea541

Division C.The Canada-Greenland delimitation541

Division D.The Jan Mayen-Iceland delimitation541

Division E.The USSR-Alaska delimitation542

Division F.International Area542

Subsection 5.The high seas542

Subsection 6.Protection of the marine environment543

Division A.Application of the 1982 Convention543

Division B.Canadian law of 1972543

Section 3.The Antarctic544

Subsection 1.Definition of the zone544

Subsection 2.Claims and jurisdictions545

Division A.The sovereignties claimed545

Division B.The political delimitations547

Division C.The Antarctic Treaty548

Para.1.Retrospective548

Para.2.Article IV549

Para.3.Article VI550

Para.4.Uncertainties551

Division D.Competence of the consultative meetings551

Para.1.Dynamic development of the Treaty551

Para.2.Overall regulatory jurisdiction552

Subsection 3.Biological resources553

Division A.The recommendations553

Para.1.Retrospective553

Para.2.Limits to the effectiveness of the recommendations554

Division B.The London Convention of 1972554

Para.1.Retrospective554

Para.2.Subject of the Convention555

Division C.The Canberra Convention of 1980555

Para.1.Retrospective555

Para.2.Special problems556

Para.3.Subject of the Convention558

Division C.Fishing zones558

Subsection 4.Continental shelf and international Area559

Division A.Continental shelf559

Division B.International Area559

Subsection 5.Protection of the marine environment560

Chapter 11 UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL OBJECTS561

Section 1.Introduction561

Section 2.Current legal framework at national and international level562

Section 3.The 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea564

Para.1.Use of terms564

Para.2.General rules565

Para.3.Regime566

Para.4.Conclusions572

Section 4.The Draft European Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage573

Para.1.Application574

Para.2.Territorial scope574

Para.3.Standards574

Para.4.Conclusions575

Section 5.Conclusions575

Part Ⅲ The international sea-bed Area577

Chapter 12 THE AREA AS THE COMMON HERITAGE OF MANKIND579

Section 1.Transspatial mankind580

Para.1.Universalism581

Para.2.Participation582

Section 2.Transtemporal mankind583

Para.1.The international community is merely a manager583

Para.2.The manager is accountable585

Chapter 13 THE INTERNATIONAL SEA-BED AREA587

Introduction587

Section 1.The international sea-bed Area590

Division A.Definition of the Area590

Division B.Description of the Area592

Section 2.The resources594

Division A.Polymetallic nodules595

Para.1.Origin and composition of nodules597

Para.2.Distribution of nodules598

Division B.Hydrothermal sources603

Division C.Hydrocarbons603

Division D.Other resources604

Section 3.Technical and economic factors605

Division A.Mining technology for Area minerals605

Para.1.Prospecting and evaluation606

Para.2.Mining607

Para.3.Transport and processing608

Division B.Economic and financial aspects610

Para.1.The mine site611

Para.2.Financial imponderables613

Para.3.Markets for the nodule minerals615

Section 4.The resources policy617

Division A.History of the concept617

Division B.The foundations of a resources policy620

Para.1.General philosophy of the development of the resources of the Area620

Para.2.Participation of developing States621

Para.3.Equilibrium of markets622

Para.4.Protection of land-based producers623

Division C.Production limitation,the key component of the resources policy624

Para.1.Commodity agreements625

Para.2.Compensation for adverse effects625

Para.3.Production limitation626

Para.4.Computing the production ceiling629

Para.5.The basis for the compromise631

Section 5.Conclusions632

Chapter 14 THE REGIME FOR THE EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF SEA-BED MINERAL RESOURCES635

Section 1.Background of the regime and development of the negotiations636

Section 2.Basic characteristics of the regime640

Para.1.The principle of limited geographical application641

Para.2.The principle of limited material content642

Para.3.The principle of public interest643

Para.4.The principle of plurality of operators644

Para.5.The principle of international control645

Para.6.The principle of transitory character645

Section 3.Carrying out of activities in the area:operators under the parallel system647

Para.1.Central role of the Authority:the basic standards648

Para.2.The Enterprise as a body for international administration649

Para.3.Public and private operators:the concept of association with the Authority652

Para.4.Choice between various kinds of joint enterprise653

Para.5.Outline of operations and associations under the parallel system654

Section4.Procedure for the selection of applicants:general and special rules655

Para.1.Conditions of nationality and sponsorship655

Para.2.Conditions governing technical and financial qualification657

Para.3.Automatic nature of the selection of applicants and description of procedures657

Para.4.Obtaining a production authorization659

Para.5.Conditions required of the Enterprise660

Section 5.Special policies of the regime661

Para.1.Policy on the transfer of technology661

Para.2.Anti-monopoly policy665

Para.3.Protection of the marine environment666

Section 6.Stages and rules relating to mining operations667

Para.1.Provisions on scientific research667

Para.2.The stage of prospecting668

Para.3.Exploration and exploitation stages668

Para.4.Mechanisms for the reservation of areas-basis of the parallel system669

Para.5.Rules,regulations and procedures of the Authority670

Section 7.The regime for preparatory investments670

Para.1.Application submitted by the pioneer investor671

Para.2.The arrangements devised by the Preparatory Commission673

Para.3.Priorities accorded to pioneer investors676

Para.4.Obligations of pioneer investors678

Section 8.Financial conditions of operations678

Para.1.Financial policy objectives679

Para.2.Fundamental differences and compromise formulae680

Para.3.Financial rules applicable to the Enterprise681

Section 9.Legal regime of contracts682

Para.1.Stability of contracts683

Para.2.Suspension and termination of contracts,monetary penalties684

Para.3.Applicable law and responsibility684

Section 10.Conclusions685

Chapter 15 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS689

Section 1.Institutionalization of the law of the sea689

Subsection 1.Before the 1982 Convention689

Subsection 2.After the 1982 Convention691

Para.1.Existing organizations691

Para.2.New organizations693

Subsection 3.The Authority:tradition and innovation695

Section 2.The Authority:antecedents698

Subsection 1.The proposals made in the Sea-Bed Committee698

Subsection 2.The negotiations at the Conference701

Section 3.Purposes of the Authority703

Subsection 1.Representation of mankind704

Subsection 2.Administration of the Area and its resources706

Para.1.The organization of the activities in the Area:monopoly706

Para.2.The conduct of activities in the Area:competition708

Para.3.The control of activities in the Area:co-operation710

Section 4.Principles710

Subsection 1.The principle of the sovereign equality of members710

Subsection 2.The principle of good faith712

Subsection 3.The principle of co-operation712

Section 5.General characteristics713

Subsection 1.Intergovernmental character713

Subsection 2.Universal character716

Subsection 3.Legal personality717

Section 6.The powers of the Authority and their limits717

Subsection 1.The limit rationae materiae:activities in the Area718

Subsection 2.The limit rationae loci:the Area720

Subsection 3.The legal limit724

Para.1.The rules of the Convention and other supplementary rules724

Para.2.The effects of the legal limit724

Para.3.The question of implicit powers725

Section 7.The principal organs of the Authority:structure and functioning727

Subsection 1.The organic structure of the Authority727

Subsection 2.The Assembly730

Para.1.Membership730

Para.2.Sessions,rules of procedure,bureau730

Para.3.Procedures for the adoption of decisions731

Subsection 3.The Council733

Para.1.Membership733

Para.2.Decision-making procedures736

Para.3.The subsidiary organs of the Council745

Subsection 4.The Secretariat746

Section 8.The principal organs of the Authority:competence747

Subsection 1.Distribution of competences between the Assembly and the Council747

Subsection 2.Powers and functions of the Assembly750

Para.1.Determination of the general policy of the Authority751

Para.2.Examination of questions or matters and attribution of functions752

Para.3.Approval of rules,regulations and procedures752

Para.4.Equitable sharing of profits753

Para.5.Establishment of a system of compensation and adoption of other measures for economic adjustment753

Para.6.Other functions753

Subsection 3.Powers and functions of the Council754

Para.1.Adoption of specific policies of the Authority755

Para.2.Recommendations and adoption of rules,regulations and procedures755

Para.3.Adoption of directives for the Enterprise756

Para.4.Approval of plans of work756

Para.5.Supervision and control757

Para.6.Power of recommendation758

Para.7.Other functions758

Section 9.The Enterprise759

Subsection 1."The first international commercial organization"759

Subsection 2.Operations760

Subsection 3.Organization761

Para.1.Sound commercial principles762

Para.2.Autonomy763

Para.3.Legal capacity767

Para.4.Structure and decision-making procedures769

Para.5.Special measures on behalf of the Enterprise771

Section 10.The judicial review of the acts of the Authority777

Subsection 1.The special system for the settlement of disputes in Part XI777

Subsection 2.The question of the illegality of the acts of international organizations780

Subsection 3.Disputes arising from acts of the Authority784

Para.1.Background784

Para.2.The system established in the Convention to review legality786

Para.3.Other disputes caused by acts of the Authority793

Section 11.The transitional arrangements:the Preparatory Commission795

Subsection 1.Organization of the Preparatory Commission796

Para.1.Composition796

Para.2.Structure798

Para.3.Taking of decisions799

Subsection 2.The Preparatory Commission as a transnational body804

Subsection 3.The Preparatory Commission as the administering body of the Area806

Para.1.Registration of pioneer investors809

Para.2.Designation of the area to be reserved for the Authority812

Para.3.Request to carry out exploration in reserved areas813

Para.4.Designation of personnel for training814

Para.5.Determination of periodic expenditures814

Para.6.Receipt of portions of the pioneer area relinquished by the pioneer investor814

Para.7.Certification of compliance with resolution Ⅱ815

Subsection 4.The Preparatory Commission as a test for a new form of co-operation817

Chapter 16 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PREPARATORY COMMISSION FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SEA-BED AUTHORITY AND FOR THE INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE LAW OF THE SEA821

Section 1.The nature of resolutions Ⅰ and Ⅱ824

Section 2.The establishment of the Preparatory Commission825

Para.1.Composition of the Commission826

Para.2.Rules of procedure826

Para.3.Duration of the Commission's mandate826

Para.4.The financing of the Commission827

Section 3.The work of the Preparatory Commission828

Para.1.Structure of the Preparatory Commission828

Para.2.Functioning of the various organs829

Para.3.Composition of the various bureaux829

Para.4.The implementation of resolution Ⅰ830

Para.5.The implementation of resolution Ⅱ831

Part Ⅳ The uses of the sea833

Chapter 17 NAVIGATION835

Section 1.Freedom of navigation and its limits835

Division A.Freedom of navigation835

Para.1.Historical origin835

Para.2.The concept of freedom of navigation836

Para.3.Geographical scope838

Para.4.The means of exercising freedom of navigation:ships841

Para.5.Freedom of navigation-what it comprises845

Division B.Limits on the freedom of navigation847

Para.1.The various types of limits847

Para.2.Rules allowing physical interference with the navigation of foreign vessels848

Para.3.General and particular rules designed to ensure compatibility between navigation and other activities at sea868

Para.4.General rules designed to ensure compatibility between navigation and other freedoms of the high seas869

Para.5.Special compatibility rules designed to ensure the exercise of navigation by different States873

Para.6.Particular rules of compatibility between navigation and other freedoms887

Para.7.Rules relating to the compatibility between freedom of navigation and powers of the coastal State over its economic zone and its continental shelf889

Para.8.Rules on compatibility between freedom of navigation and activities of exploration and exploitation of the international sea-bed Area895

Para.9.Warships and other ships on government service and the freedom of navigation899

Section 2.Innocent passage906

Division A.The general rule906

Para.1.The principle of innocent passage906

Para.2.Geographical scope of innocent passage907

Para.3.The concept of "passage"910

Para.4.When is passage "innocent"?911

Para.5.The rights of the coastal State as against non-innocent passage915

Para.6.The regulation of innocent passage by the coastal State917

Division B.Rules peculiar to certain vessels924

Para.1.The passage of nuclear vessels and vessels carrying dangerous cargoes924

Para.2.The passage of submarines926

Para.3.The innocent passage of warships929

Division C.The suspension of the exercise of the right of innocent passage935

Division D.The exercise of criminal and civil jurisdictions on board ships engaged in innocent passage937

Division E.Navigation in certain waters940

Para.1.Navigation in internal waters and access to ports940

Para.2.Navigation in international canals942

Section 3.Transit passage and archipelagic passage945

Para.1.Transit passage in straits945

Para.2.The right of archipelagic passage through sea lanes and air routes in archipelagos956

Para.3.The contents of the right of transit passage and of archipelagic sea lanes passage960

Para.4.Laws and regulations of States bordering straits and archipelagic States relating to transit passage and archipelagic sea lanes passage965

Para.5.Limits imposed on the contents and application of the laws and regulations967

Para.6.Right of transit passage and customary law970

Chapter 18 SUBMARINE CABLES AND PIPELINES977

Introduction977

Section 1.The Convention on the Protection of Submarine Cables978

Section 2.The International Law Commission979

Section 3.The Geneva Conference on the Law of the Sea981

Section 4.The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea983

Conclusions987

Chapter 19 FISHERIES AND BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES989

Section 1.General989

Subsection 1.Background and fundamental considerations989

Division A.Terminology and basic notions989

Para.1.The division of the sea into different zones and their role in regard to fisheries law989

Para.2."Fisheries" and "biological resources"991

Division B.The general characteristics of international law and their specific role in regard to the law and practice of fisheries993

Subsection 2.Traditional fisheries law and its inadequacies under today's conditions995

Section 2.The development of the modern law of fisheries and biological resources,with special reference to the development of new zones of national jurisdiction999

Subsection 1.Trends in State practice towards increased coastal State jurisdiction over fisheries and biological resources999

Subsection 2.Basic considerations in the modern law of fisheries1009

Subsection 3.The role of international conferences1017

Subsection 4.The 1974 judgments by the International Court of Justice1029

Section 3.The area within 12 miles:internal waters,territorial seas,adjacent zones1034

Subsection 1.General1034

Subsection 2.Waters under the sovereignty of the coastal State1036

Subsection 3.The 12-mile adjacent fishery zone1040

Subsection 4.Obligations of conservation in waters under the exclusive fisheries jurisdiction of the coastal State1045

Section 4.Coastal State jurisdiction on fisheries beyond 12 miles,the exclusive economic zone,200-mile fishery zones1047

Subsection 1.General1047

Subsection 2.Claims for a territorial sea of more than 12 nautical miles1049

Subsection 3.The 200-mile economic zone or 200-mile fishery zone1050

Division A.The right to a 200-mile zone1050

Para.1.The legal situation prior to 19751050

Para.2.The right to a 200-mile fishery zone or economic zone under contemporary international law1052

Division B.The applicable regime in the 200-mile zone1067

Para.1.The sovereign rights of the coastal State in respect of fisheries and biological resources1067

Para.2.Obligations incumbent upon the coastal State in matters of fisheries and biological resources1071

Para.3.Criteria and conditions for the allocation of fishery rights to other States1084

Para.4.Sedentary species:the continental shelf1105

Para.5.Anadromous and catadromous species1106

Section 5.The regime of the high seas1108

Section 6.Obligations to co-operate with other States in the preservation of resources and in the maintenance of maximum or optimum sustainable yield1117

Chapter 20 MARINE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH1127

Section 1.Scientific research under the control of the coastal State1128

Para.1.The regime governing scientific research in the territorial sea1131

Para.2.The regime governing scientific research in the exclusive economic zone and on the continental shelf1133

Section 2.Scientific research under the control of States1141

Chapter 21 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFER OF MARINE TECHNOLOGY1147

Section 1.Introductory remarks1147

Section 2.General provisions(Arts.266-269)1148

Section 3.International co-operation(Arts.270-274)1149

Section 4.National and regional marine scientific and technological centres and co-operation among international organizations1150

Chapter 22 THE PRESERVATION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT1151

Plan of this Chapter1152

Section 1.Development of a conventional machinery for combating marine pollution1153

Subsection 1.Origins1153

Subsection 2.Compensation for pollution damage1155

Division A.The lessons of the Torrey Canyon1155

Para.1.Elaboration of the 1969 and 1971 Brussels Conventions1155

Para.2.Voluntary compensation from the industry:the TOVALOP and CRISTAL plans1158

Para.3.Inadequacies-compensation for pollution damage resulting from tanker activity at sea1160

Division B.Questions raised by the Amoco Cadiz accident1161

Para.1.Gaps in the convention machinery1162

Para.2.Re-assessment of the compensation ceilings1163

Para.3.The ambiguous situation of the coastal State1163

Para.4.Evaluation of the damage1164

Division C.Attempt to improve the system:the 1984 Protocols1165

Subsection 3.Prevention of the risk of pollution1169

Division A.Prevention of pollution1169

Para.1.Operational discharges1169

Para.2.Dumping and incineration of industrial wastes1173

Para.3.Land-based pollution1178

Division B.Oil spills response-intervention of the coastal State1180

Para.1.The Brussels Convention on the right of intervention on the high seas1180

Para.2.Regional co-operation1181

Division C.Prevention of the pollution-causing maritime casualty - SOLAS1183

Section 2.International law governing the general preservation of the marine environment1185

Subsection 1.General information1185

Subsection 2.Structure of the Convention text and general characteristics of the rules relating to the preservation of the marine environment1190

Para.1.Structure1190

Para.2.Classification of the rules1192

Subsection 3.The pre-eminence of the coastal State1194

Division A.The exclusive competences of the coastal State1195

Para.1.Protection of living resources1195

Para.2.The fight against pollution caused by activities relating to the sea-bed1198

Para.3.The fight against pollution from vessels1199

Division B.Concurrent competences1200

Para.1.The fight against pollution from vessels1201

Para.2.The fight against pollution from land-based sources1210

Para.3.The fight against pollution by dumping1212

Subsection 4.The international liability of States for damage to the marine environment1213

Para.1.Applicability of the relevant rules of the law of the environment1214

Para.2.The contribution made by the Convention on the Law of the Sea1221

Para.3.Types and regimes of liability incurred1223

General conclusion1230

Chapter 23 PEACEFUL USES OF THE SEA,DENUCLEARIZATION AND DISARMAMENT1233

Section 1.General topics1233

Subsection 1.Sea,an area of peace?1233

Division A.Uses of the sea and the use of force1233

Para.1.General remarks1233

Para.2.Scope of this Chapter1234

Division B.Reservation of the sea for peaceful purposes1235

Para.1.Origin of the principle1235

Para.2.Law of the sea1235

Division C.Zones of peace1239

Para.1.Initiatives1239

Para.2.Indian Ocean1241

Para.3.Mediterranean1242

Para.4.South Atlantic1243

Para.5.South-East Asia1244

Subsection 2.The sea and contemporary strategy1245

Para.1.Introduction1245

Para.2.Naval strategy today1245

Subsection 3.The law of the sea and military activities1247

Division A.Warships1249

Para.1.Definition1249

Para.2.Immunities1250

Division B.Military activities1251

Para.1.Navigation and naval manoeuvres1251

Para.2.Artificial islands,installations,structures and devices used for military purposes1254

Para.3.Marine scientific research1256

Section 2.Disarmament and naval arms regulations1258

Subsection 1.Historical outline1258

Division A.Nineteenth century1258

Division B.Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 19071259

Para.1.First Conference1259

Para.2.Second Conference1260

Division C.Treaties of Peace 1919-19231261

Para.1.Treaty of Versailles1261

Para.2.Other Treaties of Peace1262

Division D.League of Nations1263

Para.1.The Covenant1263

Para.2.The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty1264

Para.3.The London naval treaties1265

Para.4.Other treaties1266

Division E.1947 Treaties of Peace1266

Para.1.Naval clauses1267

Para.2.Treaty of Peace with Italy1268

Division F.United Nations1269

Para.1.The Charter1269

Para.2.The results1269

Para.3.Other organizations and conferences1270

Subsection 2.Sources of law1271

Division A.Treaties1271

Para.1.Treaties and military Powers1271

Para.2.Treaties creating "objective regimes"1272

Division B.Unilateral acts of States1273

Division C.Acts adopted by international organizations and international conferences1275

Para.1.Resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly1276

Para.2.Helsinki Final Act1277

Division D.Customary law1278

Para.1.General remarks1278

Para.2.Customary law and disarmament1278

Subsection 3.Measures of disarmament and naval arms regulation1279

Division A.Limitations of naval armament1279

Para.1.Introduction1279

Para.2.Arms trade1279

Para.3.Weapons limitations1280

Division B.Demilitarized areas1282

Para.1.Definition1282

Para.2.Demilitarization and maritime areas1283

Para.3.Islands1284

Para.4.Straits1287

Para.5.Canals1290

Para.6.Sea1293

Subsection 4.The denuclearization of the sea1296

Division A.Restriction and prohibition of nuclear weapons1296

Para.1.Prohibition of the use of nuclear weapons1296

Para.2.Limitation of strategic nuclear weapons at sea1297

Para.3.Denuclearization and the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes1300

Division B.Prohibition of nuclear weapon tests1301

Para.1.Introduction1301

Para.2.Sea1302

Para.3.Sea-bed1303

Para.4.Antarctica1305

Para.5.Latin America1305

Para.6.South Pacific1305

Division C.Nuclear-weapon-free zones1306

Para.1.Introduction1306

Para.2.The sea-bed1307

Para.3.Antarctica1308

Para.4.Latin America1309

Para.5.South Pacific1310

Para.6.Other regions1311

Subsection 5.Confidence-building measures and measures intended to reduce the risk of the outbreak of armed conflicts1313

Para.1.Introduction1313

Para.2.Prevention of incidents on the high seas1315

Para.3.Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe(CSCE)1316

Chapter 24 THE INTERFERENCE BETWEEN THE RULES OF THE NEW LAW OF THE SEA AND THE LAW OF WAR1321

Section 1.Maritime spaces "a region of war".The case of the exclusive economic zone1322

Section 2.The behaviour of belligerents and the legitimate exercise of the rights arising out of the rules of the law of the sea-the zones of war or the zones of exclusion1325

Section 3.Blockade and transit passage1329

Chapter 25 SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES1333

Introduction1333

Para.1.Historical background1334

Para.2.The concept of "dispute" as used in Part XV of the Treaty1339

Para.3.Obligation to resolve dispute by peaceful means1341

Para.4.Freedom of choice of peaceful means of settlement1342

Section 1.Procedures entailing optional decisions1344

Subsection 1.Exchange of views1344

Subsection 2.Conciliation1345

Para.1.Areas where ratione materiae jurisdiction is subject to compulsory conciliation1345

Para.2.Conciliation procedure1350

Section 2.Settlement procedures entailing binding decisions1358

Subsection 1.General theory of jurisdiction1359

Division A.Ratione materiae jurisdiction1359

Para.1.Disputes amenable to the judicial procedures1359

Para.2.Exceptions1360

Division B.Ratione personae jurisdiction1363

Division C.Ratione fori jurisdiction1366

Para.1.Freedom to choose the competent court or tribunal1366

Para.2.Exercising freedom of choice1369

Subsection 2.The theory of law of the sea dispute settlement proceedings1374

Division A.The powers of the nominated court or tribunal1374

Para.1.The power to resolve disputes1374

Para.2.Emergency powers of the court or tribunal before which a matter is brought1378

Division B.Judicial procedures1383

Subdivision A.How the procedure functions1384

Subdivision B.Organization of proceedings1392

Para.1.Arbitral procedures1393

Para.2.Judicial procedures1397

Appendices1403

CONTENTS1405

1.UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA1421

2.FINAL ACT OF THE THIRD UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE LAW OF THE SEA1583

3.STATUS OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA1617

Bibliography1625

Analytical index1655