《语义学教程 英文》

Tableof Contents1

Acknowledgements1

1． Semantic Levels and Approaches1

1．1 Language is hierarchic1

序（一）2

1．2 Meaning and reality2

序（二）3

前言4

1．3 Semantic levels and approaches4

Preface〔K．KUIPER〕5

2．1 The medium of language is sound6

2． A Phonetic Approach6

2．2 Language is both arditrry and non -arbitrary7

2．3 Language is largely arbitrary10

2．3．1 Sounds and words10

2．3．2 Sonds adn 'morphemes'11

2．4 Phonetic elicitors of semantic traits12

2．5 Prosody and meaning13

2．5．1 Prosodic features13

2．5．2 The meaning of stress14

2．5．3 The meanig of intonation16

3． A Grammatical Approach22

3．1 Morpheme meaning22

3．1．1 The ernergence of morphology22

3．1．2 Morphemes :the smallest units of meaning23

3．1．3 Analysing words25

3．1．4 Morphemes,morphs and allomorphs27

3．1．5 Grammatical conditioning , lexical conditioning and suppleion35

3．1．6 Sense and grammaticul meaning37

3．1．7 The nature of morphemes38

3．2 Word meaning42

3．2．1 Introducion42

3．2．2 Words and grammatical caiegories44

3．2．3 Words and lexical items45

3．2．4 Problesm with pinning down word meaning50

3．2．5 Lexical relations54

3．2．6 Derivational relations64

3．2．7 Summary66

3．3 Idiom meaning67

3．3．1 Scope of idioms67

3．3．2 Some issues in the study of idioms68

3．3．3 The analyzability of idioms75

3．3．4 The cognitive motivation for idiomatic meaning81

3．3．5 Idioms and meton ymy89

3．4 Sentence meaning :meaningful and meaningles sentences91

3．4．2 Grammaticality,acceptability and meaningfulness92

3．4．3 The meaning fulness of sentences94

3．4．4 Corrigibility and translatability98

3．4．5 Verfiability and verificationism99

3．4．6 Propositions and propositional content100

3．4．7 Non-factual significance and emotivism103

3．4．8 Truth-conditions104

3．4．9 Tautologies and contradictions108

4． Alogical Approach111

4．1 Introduction111

4．2 Set thery112

4．2．1 Sets and elements112

4．2．2 Relations between sets113

4．2．3 Operations on sets114

4．2．4 Ordered N-tuples117

4．3 Inference and logical analysis of sentences118

4．3．1 inference118

4．3．2 Sentences and truth119

4．3．3 Sentences and propositions120

4．3．4 The depth of the logical andlysis121

4．4 Propositional logic122

4．4．1 Connectives122

4．4．2 The Meaning of the logical connectives122

4．4．3 The syntax and semantics of propositioanal calculus126

4．4．4 Syntax127

4．4．5 Semantics129

4．5 Predicate logic132

4．5．1 Extending the logical analysis132

4．5．2 Quantifjers135

4．5．3 Summary of the syntax of predicate logic137

4．5．4 The semantics of predicate logic138

5．1 The scope of philosophy of language143

5． A Philosophical Approach143

5．2 Philosophical semantics147

5．2．1 Question 1:How is meaning possible?148

5．2．2 Question 2:What kinds of meaning are possible?152

5．2．3 Linguistic semantics as linguistics155

5．3 Some basic topics in philosophical semantics155

5．3．1 Truth and meaning156

5．3．2 Reference and descriptions158

5．3．3 Names and demonstratives161

6． A Pragmatic Approach167

6．1 Setting the scene167

6．1．1 Meaning as use167

6．1．2 Pragmatics168

6．1．3 Utterances169

6．1．4 Levels of meaning170

6．2 Speech act theory171

6．2．1 Performatives171

6．2．2 Speech acts174

6．2．3 Locution,illocution,perlocution175

6．2．4 Locutionary acts176

6．2．5 illocutionary force182

6．2．6 Case study :illocutionary act of promising188

6．2．7 Case study:illocutionary act of promising196

6．2．8 Propositional aclc198

6．3．1 lntroduction199

6．3 Conversational implicature199

6．3．2 H．P．Grice200

6．3．3 lmplicature200

6．3．4 Cooperative principle204

6．4 Pragmatic presupposition221

7．A Cognitive Approach225

7．1 Cognitive semantics225

7．1．1 Cognitive linguistics as an approach225

7．1．2 Three fundamental characteristics of cognitive linguistics227

7．1．3 Linguistic categorization is the major focus227

7．2．2 Four characteristics of prototypicality229

7．2．1 Prototypes229

7．2 Prototype theory229

7．2．3 Case study of prototype:fruit231

7．3 Levels of categorization235

7．3．1 Basic level categories of organisms a and concrete objects238

7．3．2 Superordinate categories238

7．3．3 Subordinate categories241

8．A Functional Approach248

8．1 Functions of language:What do we use language for?248

8．2 Towards a functional grammar249

8．2．1 Notions of grammar249

8．2．2 Building on trdditional grammar252

8．3．1 Whai kind of metalanguage do we need to discuss language as experience?256

8．3 Exploring experiential meanings256

8．3．2 Clause constituency in the experiential function257

8．3．3 Material processes258

8．3．4 Relational processes260

8．3．5 Projecting Processes261

8．4 Exploring interpersonal meanings262

8．4．1 What metalanguage do we need to discuss language as interaction?262

8．4．2 The finite263

8．4．3 The subject-fjnite relationship264

8．4．4 Mood, predicatgor,adjunct,complement265

8．4．5 Residue266

8．4．6 How does this metalanguage heip analyse and describe interaction?267

8．5 Exploring textual meanings:Putting first things first273

8．5．1 What metalanguage do we need to discuss the fjrst elements in a clause?275

8．5．2 Identifying theme276

8．5．3 Textual themes277

8．5．4 Interpersonal theme279

9． A Stylistic Approach280

9．1 Stylistic meaning of words280

9．2 Style and stylistics282

9．3 The subject of linguostylistics284

9．4 Synonymy as a linguostylistic category287

10．A Social Approach300

10．1 Language in social contexts300

10．2 Fundamental concepts300

10．3．1 Social stratification303

10．3 Social differentiation of language303

10．3．2 Social differentiation of English304

10．3．3 Language and gender307

10．3．4 Euphemism310

10．3．5 Slang312

10．3．6 Jargon and argot315

11． An Anthropological Approach321

11．1 Meaning,cognition ,and the domain of anthropological linguistics321

11．2 Kinship324

11．2．1 Kinship analysis324

11．2．2 Universals of kinship325

11．2．3 Relativist responses to universalist approaches to kinship327

11．2．4 Summary329

11．3 Color330

11．3．1 The neutophysiology of color330

11．3．2 Color categorization334

11．3．3 Types of basic color terminologies336

11．3．4 Universal constraints on basic color terminologies341

11．3．5 Relativist responses to proposed universals of color terminologies343

11．3．6 Summary348

12．A Semiotic Approach350

12．1 Defining semiotics350

12．2 Semantics and semiotics357

12．3 Semiotics as a theory of 'speech Acts':Austin and Searle359

12．3．1 The scope of the 'Theory of Speech Acts'359

12．3．2 Austin 's initial insight and its implications361

12．3．3 'Felidcity'and infelicity363

12．3．4 Austin 's revised theory371

12．3．5 Searle's elaboration of the'Theory of Speech Acts'375

13． A Psychological Approach381

13．1 Psycholinguistics:the study of language processing381

13．2 Methods of psycholinguistic research382

13．2．1 Slips of the tongue383

13．2．2 Experimental methods:words in the mind384

14．A Historical Approach389

14．1 Historical linguistics389

14．2 Morphological change389

14．2．1 Reanalysis and effect on meaning389

14．2．2 Analogy391

14．2．3 Morphologization392

14．2．4 Change in morphological type393

14．3 Lexical and semantic change395

14．3．2 Shift in markedness397

14．3．3 Taboo and euphemism398

14．3．4 Mother -in-law language401

14．3．5 Generalization and specialization402

14．3．6 Melioration and pejoration403

14．3．7 Metaphor and metonymy404

14．3．8 Gresham's law of semantic change406

14．3．9 Principles and tendencies in semantic change407

Bibliography410