《INTERNATIONAL LAW AS APPLIED BY INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS VOLUME II》求取 ⇩

INTRODUCTION1

Why Study the Laws of War?1

PART ONE FUNDAMENTALS9

1.FUNCTIONS AND FOUNDATIONS OF THE LAWS OF WAR9

1. Functions of the Laws of War9

2. Legal Foundations of the Laws of War14

2.THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF-DEFENCE28

1. The Meaning of Self-Defence28

2. Verification of the Exercise of Self-Defence29

3. Self-Defence and Necessity30

4. Putative Self-Defence31

5. The Scope of the Right of Self-Defence32

6. The Test of the Lawful Exercise of Self-Defence33

3.LEGAL AND ILLEGAL USES OF FORCE37

1. Pre-1914 International Law and Jus ad Bellum37

2. Pre-1914 International Law and Compulsory MeasuresShort of War38

3. The Impact of the Kellogg Pact on Jus ad Bellum45

4. The Impact of the Kellogg Pact on Compulsory Measures Short of War48

5. The Quasi-Order of the United Nations and the Legality of the Resort to Force50

4.WAR AND STATE OF WAR59

1. International Judicial Practice59

2. War and State of War60

3. Uses of the Distinction61

5.LEGAL EFFECTS OF WAR:Ⅰ—RELATIONS BETWEEN STATES63

1. Temporal Scope65

2. Territorial Scope67

3. Functional Scope70

6.LEGAL EFFECTS OF WARⅡ—RELATIONS BETWEEN BELLIGERENT STATES AND ENEMY NATIONALS75

1. In Search of the Limiting Rule76

2. The Pattern of the 1919-21 Peace Treaties84

3. The Post-1945 Settlements88

7.LEGAL EFFECTS OF WARⅢ—PRIVATE RELATIONS90

1. The Governing Rules90

2. International Judicial Practice92

8.LEGAL EFFECTS OF WARⅣ—ILLEGAL WAR96

1. The Problem in the Perspective of the Fundamental Principles of International Law96

2. The Problem in Intern ational Judicial Practice100

3. Tentative Rules105

PART TWO THE LAW OF LAND WARFARE105

9.SCOPE AND LIMITS OF THE LAW OF LAND WARFAREⅠ—THE STANDARD OF CIVILISATION109

1. The Distinction between Combatants and Non-Combatants110

2. The Distinction between Members of Armed Forces and Civilians and between Lawful and Unlawful Combatants115

3. The Law relating to Prisoners of War117

10.SCOPE AND LIMITS OF THE LAW OF LAND WARFAREⅡ—THE NECESSITIES OF WAR128

1. Necessity and Necessities of War128

2. International Judicial Practice130

3. Evaluation135

PART THREE THE LAW OF AIR WARFARE139

11. THE LAW OF AIR WARFARE AND THE TREND TOWARDS TOTAL WAR139

1. The “ Autonomy " of Air Warfare and the Law of Air Warfare139

2. The Governing Rules141

3. The Trend towards Total War150

PART FOUR THE LAW OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION163

12. BASIC ISSUES163

1. Legal Foundations163

2. The Prohibition of Wartime Annexation166

3. The Territorial and Temporal Scope of the Law of Belligerent Occupation174

4. Functions of the Law of Belligerent Occupation177

13. THE GOVERNMENT OF OCCUPIED TERRITORIES:Ⅰ—THE MAINTENANCE OF PUBLIC ORDER179

1. The Restoration and Maintenance of Public Order180

2. Immunity of the Occupying Power from the Local Law183

14. THE GOVERNMENT OF OCCUPIED TERRITORIESⅡ—LEGISLATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE POWERS191

1. Legislative Powers of the Belligerent Occupant191

2. Legislative Powers of the Disseised Sovereign196

3. Administration of the Occupied Territory207

15. THE PROTECTION OF PERSONAL RIGHTS:Ⅰ—INTERFERENCE WITH LIFE AND LIMB211

1. The Scheme of the Hague and Geneva Conventions211

2. Terrorisation213

3. Extermination214

4. Denationalisation216

5. Ill-Treatment218

16. THE PROTECTION OF PERSONAL RIGHTSⅡ—INTERFERENCE WITH FREEDOM220

1. Detention and Internment220

2. Compulsory Labour224

3. Deportation227

17. THE PROTECTION OF PERSONAL RIGHTSⅢ—HOSTAGES234

1. The Rules in Historical Perspective234

2. Legal Basis236

3. International Judicial Practice239

4. The Geneva Codification of 1949241

18. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅠ—THE HAGUE PATTERN243

1. The Formative Factors243

2. Property Immune from Destruction and Seizure244

3. The Protection of Private Property245

4. The Protection of State Property247

19. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅡ—THE IMPACT OF TOTAL WAR249

1. State-Organised Exploitation249

2. General Devastation254

20. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅢ—THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC PROPERTY259

1. The Rousseau-Portalis Doctrine259

2. International Judicial Practice260

21. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS Ⅳ—THE PROHIBITION OF THE CONFISCATION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY266

22. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSV—THE REQUISITION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY268

1. The Scope of Lawful Requisition268

2. The Conditions of Lawful Requisition269

3. Legal Effects274

4. Legal Characteristics of Requisition284

23.THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅥ—THE SEIZURE OF PRIVATE PROPERTY289

1. Two Model Decisions289

2. Seizure and Requisition291

3. Seizure under Articles 23 （g） and 53 （2） of the Hague Regulations292

4. Legal Effects294

5. Seizable Property296

6. The Rules Governing Seizure307

24.THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅦ—PUBLIC PROPERTY308

1. Doubtful Ownership308

2. Movable Public Property310

3. Immovable Public Property311

4. The Destruction of Public Enemy Property313

25. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION Ⅰ—PERSPECTIVES316

1. The Significance of the Laws of War in the Wider Sense316

2. The De Facto Element in Belligerent Occupation321

26. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION Ⅱ—IMPLICATIONS Ratione Personae OF THE EFFECTIVITY RULE325

1. The Status of Irregular Forces325

2. Legal Basis of the Relations between the Occupying Power and the Civilian Population327

27. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION Ⅲ—IMPLICATIONS Ratione Loci OF THE EFFECTIVITY RULE330

1. The Meanings of Extraterritorial Effects of Belligerent Occupation330

2. Extraterritorial Effects of the Peacetime Exercise of Territorial Jurisdiction331

3. International Judicial Practice337

28. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION Ⅳ—IMPLICATIONS Ratione Temporis OF THE EFFECTIVITY RULE342

1. TheTransition from Territorial Sovereignty to Belligerent Occupation342

2. The “ Principle " of Subrogation343

3. The Transition from Belligerent Occupation to Territorial Sovereignty346

4. Apparently Related Situations348

29. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION V—RECENT TRENDS349

1. Developments in the Substantive Law349

2. Developments in Legal Machinery351

3. Evaluation355

PART FIVE THE LAW OF SEA WARFARE355

30. THE LAW OF SEA WARFARE ESSENTIALS361

1. The Function of Sea Warfare363

2. The Equilibrium between the Formative Factors363

3. Prize Law: Basic Rules365

4. The Areas of Sea Warfare368

31.ACTIVE COMBATANTS373

1. Potential Tests373

2. Tests Applied in the Law of Peace373

3. The Rules Governing the Test374

4. Legal Significance of the Test378

32.OBJECTS OF SEA WARFAREⅠ—ENEMY NAVAL AND UNARMED MERCHANT SHIPS379

1. Enemy Naval Ships379

2. Enemy Merchant Ships384

33.OBJECTS OF SEA WARFAREⅡ—ARMED ENEMY MERCHANT SHIPS ENEMY MERCHANT SHIPS IN CONVOY AND NEUTRAL MERCHANT SHIPS ASSIMILATED TO ENEMY SHIPS390

1. Armed Enemy Merchant Ships390

2. Enemy Merchant Ships in Convoy394

34.OBJECTS OF SEA WARFARE Ⅲ—LAND TARGETS403

1. The Governing Rules of International Customary Law403

2. Treaty Law407

35.OBJECTS OF SEA WARFARE Ⅳ—SUBMARINE CABLES409

1. Treaty Law409

2. The Operative Rules410

3. International Judicial Practice412

36.FORMS OF SEA WARFARE416

1. Mines and Torpedoes416

2. Submarines424

37. RECENT TRENDS425

1. Lawful Combatants425

2. Objects of Sea Warfare429

3. The Forms of Sea Warfare432

4. Humanitarian Aspects433

PART SIX ENFORCEME NT OF THE RULES OF WARFARE443

38. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY IN TIME OF WAR443

1. Nineteenth-Century Case-Law and Codification443

2. Hague Convention ⅣV of 1907448

3. The Impact of a State of War on International Responsibility450

4. Recent Developments455

39.THE BREISACH TRIAL OF 1474462

1. The Historical Background462

2. Organisation of the Tribunal463

3. The Law Applied by the Tribunal464

40.THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS Ⅰ—LEGAL BASIS AND ORGANISATION467

1. Legal Basis467

2. Organisation468

41.THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS Ⅱ—WAR CRIMES AND CRIMES AGAINST PEACE478

1. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Charters479

2. War Crimes in the Strict Sense483

3. Crimes against Peace485

42.THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS Ⅲ—CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY, MULTIPLE CRIMES AND CRIMINAL ORGANISATIONS496

1. Crimes against Humanity496

2. Multiple Crimes499

3. Criminal Organisations502

43.THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS Ⅳ—DEFENCES507

1. Challenges to Jurisdiction507

2. Grounds of Justification509

3. Grounds Excluding or Mitigating Guilt520

44. THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS V—THE IMPACT ON INTERNATIONAL LAW524

1. Elaboration and Implementation of the Nuremberg Principles525

2. Humanitarian Law-Making at Geneva540

3. The Nuremberg and Geneva Patterns in Perspective544

PART SEVEN THE LAW OF NEUTRALITY544

45.FUNDAMENTALS:Ⅰ—THE BASIC RULES—THE DUTIES OF ABSTENTION AND IMPARTIALITY549

1. The Basic Rules549

2. The Duties of Abstention and Impartiality550

46.FUNDAMENTALS:Ⅱ—NEUTRAL TERRITORY—RESPECT FOR NEUTRAL RIGHTS—NEUTRAL STATUS—BREACHES OF NEUTRALITY562

1. Neutral Territory as a Base of Hostile Operations562

2. Respect for Neutral Rights565

3. Neutral Status573

4. Breaches of Neutrality576

47.THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY IN LAND WARFARE582

1. The Position of Neutral Nationals and Property in Theatres of War582

2. The Position of Neutral Nationals and Property in Occupied Territories584

3. The Position of Neutral Nationals and Property in Territories of Belligerents586

48.THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY INSEA WARFARE:Ⅰ—FUNDAMENTALS592

1. The Paris Declaration of 1856592

2. Stoppage, Visit and Search595

3. Seizure and Capture597

4. The Destruction of Neutral Prize600

49. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY IN SEA WARFARE:Ⅱ—PRIZE COURTS604

1. The Basic Rule604

2. The Character of Prize Courts604

3. “ Probable Cause "606

4. Damages608

5. The Finality of Judgments in Prize608

6. International Responsibility610

50. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY IN SEA WARFARE:Ⅲ—ASSISTANCE TO THE ENEMY: CONTRABAND616

1. Meaning616

2. Ratio Legis618

3. The First Element of Contraband: Usefulness for War Purposes619

4. TheSecond Element of Contraband: Enemy Destination621

51. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY IN SEA WARFARE:Ⅳ—OTHER FORMS OF ASSISTANCE TO THE ENEMY624

1. Acts Assimilated to Contraband Trade624

2. Blockade-Running626

52. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY INSEA WARFARE:V—THE LAW OF ANGARY635

1. Evolution of the Law of Angary635

2. Essentials636

3. Related Legal Institutions638

53.RECENT TRENDS IN THE LAW OF NEUTRALITY:Ⅰ—REPRISALS644

1. Belligerent Reprisals and Neutral Powers644

2. The Effects of Reprisals on the Law of Neutrality646

3. Evaluation650

54.RECENT TRENDS IN THE LAW OF NEUTRALITYⅡ—THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL CHANGE654

1. A Comparable Issue654

2. Another Lesson655

3. The Elasticity of the Law of Neutrality656

55.RECENT TRENDS IN THE LAW OF NEUTRALITYⅢ—CODIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT661

1. Codification661

2. Development664

PART EIGHTINTERNAL ARMED CONFLICT673

56.THE RELATIVITY OF INTERNATIONAL AND INTERNAL ARMED CONFLICT673

1. Terminology673

2. Synopsis674

57.THE GOVERNING RULESI—SOVEREIGNTY679

1. Applicability of the Laws of War679

2. The Impact of Co-Existen681

3. The Rules of Sovereignty as Applied to InternalArmed Conflict688

58.THE GOVERNING RULES:Ⅱ—RECOGNITION689

1. The Impact of the Scale and Duration of Internal War689

2. Recognition of Belligerency690

59.THE GOVERNING RULES:Ⅲ—INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILY696

1. The Basic Distinction696

2. Two Kinds of Law?698

60.THE GOVERNING RULESⅣ—THE FREEDOM OF THE SEAS—GOOD FATH703

1. The Freedom of the Seas703

2. Good Faith705

61.THE GOVERNING RULESV—THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSENT713

1. Modification713

2. Codification714

3. Development716

PART NINE THE TERMINATION OF ARMED CONFLICTS723

62.THE RELATIVITY OF WAR AND PEACE723

1. Lessons of the Past724

2. Armistice Conventions725

63.PEACE TREATIESⅠ—FUNCTIONS AND LEGAL EFFECTS730

1. Functions731

2. Legal Effects733

64.PEACE TREATIESⅡ—SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS735

1. Pre-Eminence?735

2. Inequality of the Parties?736

3. Peace Treaties and General International Law740

65.PEACE TREATIESⅢ—INTERPRETATION744

1. Judicial Law-Making744

2. Conditions of Judicial Law-Making745

3. Softening the Law of Power746

66.PEACE TREATIESⅣ—FROM WAR INDEMNITY TO REPARATION758

1. The Pre-1914 Law758

2. Indemnities of War759

3. The Versailles Pattern760

4. The Turning Point762

5. The Post-1945 Settlements762

6. The Reparation Systems of the Post-1945 Settlements764

67.PEACE TREATIES V—RESTITUTION AND COMPENSATION767

1. Allied Property, Rights and Interests in the Post-1945Settlements768

2. Restitution773

3. Compensation778

4. The Challenge to Our Age783

APPENDICES787

1.Status of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907（September 1, 1967）787

2. Status of the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949（September 1, 1967）792

3. Status of the General Poison Gas Protocol of June 17,1925 （September 1, 1967）794

Selected Bibliography795

Index of Persons857

Subject Index865