《AKEHURST%MODERN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL LAW SEVENTH REVISED EDITION》

1 Introduction1

The problem of defining international law1

General and regional international law2

Characteristics of international law3

International law as ‘law’5

The scope of international law7

2 History and theory9

The formation of European international law10

Features of European international law in state practice after 164811

Colonization and the relation to non-European powers12

The Western hemisphere14

Theory： naturalists and positivists15

The theory of sovereignty17

Legal results of the period up to the First World War18

The unlimited right to use force19

The peaceful settlement of disputes20

Prohibition of the slave trade21

Humanization of the law of warfare21

First forms of international organizations22

The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 190722

The watershed after the First World War23

The League of Nations23

The attempt to restrict the use of force24

Other functions of the League24

The Permanent Court of Justice24

Failure of the League system25

Development after the Second World War26

The prohibition of the use of force and collective security in the United Nations Charter26

Decolonization and change in the composition of the international community28

Attitudes of Third World states towards international law28

Universality and the challenge to the unity of international law30

New developments in theory32

3 Sources of international law35

Treaties36

Law-making treaties and ‘contract treaties’37

Parties to international treaties and ‘internationalized contracts’38

Custom39

Where to look for evidence of customary law39

The problem of repetition41

What states say and what states do43

The psychological element in the formation of customary law （opinio iuris）44

‘Instant’ customary law45

Universality and the consensual theory of international law46

General principles of law48

Judicial decisions51

Learned writers51

Other possible sources of international law52

Acts of international organizations52

‘Soft’ law54

Equity55

The hierarchy of the sources56

Ius cogens57

Obligations erga omnes and ‘international crimes’58

Codification of international law60

4 International law and municipal law63

Dualist and monist theories63

The attitude of international law to municipal law64

The attitude of national legal systems to international law65

Treaties65

Custom and general principles68

Conclusions71

Public international law and private international law71

5States and governments75

States75

Defined territory75

Population76

Effective control by a government77

Capacity to enter into relations with other states79

Self-determination and recognition as additional criteria80

Federal states81

Governments81

Recognition of states and governments in international law82

Recognition of states82

Legal effects of recognition in international law83

Legal effects in domestic law86

Recognition of governments86

De jure and de facto recognition88

6International organizations， individuals， companies and groups91

International organizations92

Non-governmental organizations （NGOs）96

Individuals and companies100

Insurgents and national liberation movements104

Ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples105

Minorities105

Indigenous peoples106

7 Jurisdiction109

Forms of jurisdiction109

Criminal jurisdiction of national courts110

Territorial principle110

Nationality principle111

Protective principle111

Universality principle112

Universal jurisdiction of national courts over crimes against human rights113

‘Ivan the Terrible’ - The trial of John Demjanuk115

Conflicts of jurisdiction116

Extradition117

8Immunity from jurisdiction118

Sovereign （or state） immunity118

The act of state doctrine121

Diplomatic immunity123

Immunity from the jurisdiction of courts125

Other privileges and immunities126

Consular immunity127

Immunities of international organizations127

Waiver of immunity128

9 Treaties130

Conclusion and entry into force of treaties131

Adoption of the text of a treaty131

Consent to be bound by a treaty131

Entry into force134

Reservations135

Registration136

Application of treaties137

Territorial scope of treaties137

Treaties and third states137

Application of successive treaties relating to the same subject matter137

Invalid treaties137

Provisions of municipal law regarding competence to conclude treaties138

Treaties entered into by persons not authorized to represent a state138

Specific restrictions on authority to express the consent of a state139

Coercion of a representative of a state139

Coercion of a state by the threat or use of force139

Other causes of invalidity140

The consequences of invalidity140

Termination of treaties141

Termination in accordance with the provisions of a treaty141

Termination by consent of the parties141

Implied right of denunciation or withdrawal142

Termination or suspension of a treaty as a consequence of its breach （discharge through breach）142

Supervening impossibility of performance144

Fundamental change of circumstances （rebus sic stantibus）144

Emergence of a new peremptory norm （ius cogens）145

Outbreak of war145

Consequences of termination or suspension146

10 Acquisition of territory147

Modes of acquisition of territory147

Cession148

Occupation148

Prescription150

Operations of nature151

Adjudication151

Conquest151

Acquiescence， recognition and estoppel154

Intertemporal law155

Legal and political arguments157

Minor rights over territory158

Servitudes158

11Legal consequences of changes of sovereignty over territory （state succession）161

Treaties162

Treaties dealing with rights over territory162

Other types of treaties163

The principle of ‘moving treaty boundaries’163

Decolonization and new states164

Recent practice165

Secession165

Baltic states165

Dismemberment166

Soviet Union166

Yugoslavia167

Czechoslovakia167

Unification167

Germany167

Yemen168

International claims169

Nationality169

Public property169

Private propertv170

Contractual rights170

12 The law of the sea173

Internal waters175

Territorial sea176

The right of innocent passage176

Rights of the coastal state over the territorial sea177

The width of the territorial sea178

The line from which the territorial sea is measured180

The contiguous zone182

Exclusive fishery zones and exclusive economic zones183

The high seas184

Interference with ships on the high seas186

Jurisdiction of municipal courts over crimes committed on the high seas190

The continental shelf191

The deep seabed193

Maritime boundaries195

13 Air space and outer space198

Air space198

Outer space201

The ‘common heritage of mankind’ principle207

14 Human rights209

The concept of human rights209

Human rights on the universal level211

The United Nations Charter211

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights212

United Nations bodies active in the field of human rights213

The 1966 Covenants215

Other human rights instruments on the universal level216

Human rights on the regional level217

The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms217

Other regional instruments219

Human rights as a matter of international concern220

15 Economy222

The Bretton Woods system and international economic organizations223

The International Monetary Fund （IMF）225

The World Bank227

The GATT228

The new World Trade Organization231

The trade agreements on goods231

The Agreement on Services （GATS）232

The Agreement on Intellectual Property Rights （TRIPS）232

Institutional aspects233

Developing countries and the legal quest for a New International Economic Order233

Expropriation and standard of compensation235

Disguised expropriation238

Expropriation of contractual rights238

The right to development239

16 Environment241

The scope and nature of international environmental law242

Customary law and general principles245

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development247

The Convention on Climate Change248

The Biodiversity Convention249

The Rio Declaration and Agenda 21250

Conclusions251

17 State responsibility254

The work of the International Law Commission254

State responsibility and the treatment of aliens256

‘Imputability’257

The minimum international standard260

Preliminary objections262

Nationality of claims263

Exhaustion of local remedies267

Waiver268

Unreasonable delay and improper behaviour by the injured alien269

Consequences of an internationally wrongful act269

Countermeasures and dispute settlement271

18 Peaceful settlement of disputes between states273

Diplomatic methods of dispute settlement275

Negotiations275

Good offices and mediation275

Fact-finding and inquiry277

Conciliation278

Legal methods of dispute settlement281

Adjudication281

The International Court of Justice281

Composition282

Jurisdiction in contentious cases282

Procedure287

Ad hoc chambers288

Enforcement of judgments288

Advisory opinions289

Evaluation of the Court290

Arbitration293

ICSID295

The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal296

Settlement of disputes under the Law of the Sea Convention298

Conclusions300

19 Internatlonal wars， civil wars and the right to self-determination：ids ad bellum306

Lawful and unlawful wars： developments before 1945306

The prohibition of the use of force in the United Nations Charter309

Self-defence311

Preventive self-defence311

Self-defence and claims to territory314

Self-defence against attacks on ships and aircraft315

Armed protection of nationals abroad315

Armed reprisals316

Immediacy and proportionality316

Collective self-defence317

Civil wars318

The legality of civil wars318

Participation by other states： help for the insurgents319

Participation by other states： help for the established authorities322

The theory that help for the established authorities is legal322

The theory that help for the established authorities is illegal323

Collective self-defence against subversion324

Conclusion325

Self-determination and the use of force326

Mandated territories， trust territories and non-self-governing territories327

Mandated territories327

Trust territories328

South West Africa （Namibia）328

Non-self-governing territories329

Double standards？332

Consequences of violations of the right of self-determination334

Creation of new states334

Title to territory334

Wars of national liberation336

New developments338

The effectiveness of the modern rules against the use of force341

20 Means of waging war and criminal responsibility： ius in bello342

Lawful and unlawful means of waging war342

Nuclear weapons346

The law of neutrality and economic uses of maritime warfare350

Reprisals351

Rules governing the conduct of civil wars352

War crimes trials353

The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia355

Jurisdiction of the Tribunal356

The work of the Tribunal358

The Rwanda Tribunal360

Towards a permanent international criminal court？360

Possible future developments361

21 The Charter and the organs of the United Nations364

The United Nations Charter and the problem of interpretation364

Literal interpretation365

Intention and travaux preparatoires366

Practice366

Effectiveness and implied powers367

The purposes of the United Nations368

Domestic jurisdiction368

Membership369

The representation of China371

The case of Yugoslavia372

The organs of the United Nations373

The Security Council373

The General Assembly377

The Secretariat380

The Economic and Social Council and the specialized agencies382

22 The United Nations and peace and security385

Pacific settlement of disputes under the United Nations Charter （Chapter Ⅵ）385

Collective security and enforcement action （Chapter ⅦI）387

Practice under Chapter ⅦI during the Cold War390

The United Nations force in Korea391

The Uniting for Peace Resolution392

Rhodesia and South Africa393

Practice under Chapter ⅦI after the end of the Cold War395

The invasion of Kuwait by Iraq396

The Kurdish crisis399

Somalia402

Rwanda405

Haiti407

Yugoslavia409

UN peacekeeping416

The ‘old’ peacekeeping during the Cold War416

The first United Nations Emergency Force in the Middle East （UNEF）417

The United Nations Force in the Congo （ONUC）418

The Expenses case420

The United Nations Force in Cyprus （UNFICYP）420

New forces in the Middle East422

New forms of peacekeeping after the Cold War423

Conclusion425

Table of cases431

Table of treaties， declarations and other documents435

Index441