《CRININAL LAW》

1.THE CRIMINAL ACT1

1.The necessity for an act1

2.Words as acts2

3.Omissions： the necessity for a duty to act3

4.： When a duty is imposed4

5.Possession as an act8

6.The meaning of possession8

7.Crimes without any personal act or omission10

8.The mental element in an act11

9.The practical importance of requiring an act13

10.The mental element in an omission15

11.Other elements of an act； the actus reus16

12.Mens rea as affecting actus reus22

13.The use of the word " unlawfully " in criminal statutes27

2.INTENTION AND RECKLESSNESS30

14.Nature of the requirement of mens rea30

15.The concept of responsibility and a radical proposal32

16.Intention as desire of consequence34

17.Unconscious motivations36

18.Intention also includes foresight of certainty38

19.Where foresight of certainty is not intention42

20.Intentional omissions； wilful neglect44

21.Intention and motive48

22.Crimes requiring intention51

23.Conditional intention52

24.Recklessness as foresight of consequence53

25.Recklessness involves negligence58

26.The degree of probability of the consequence59

27.Crimes requiring intention or recklessness64

28.The meaning of " calculated "66

29.Mens rea in defamatory libel, sedition, blas-phemy and obscenity67

30.Malice72

31.A proposal of the Criminal Law Commissioners75

32.Mens rea in larceny77

33.Mens rea without dishonest or improper intent80

34.Offences requiring fraud or dishonesty84

35.The supposed presumption of intention89

3.NEGLIGENCE100

36.The objective test of negligence100

37.Negligence as enforcing rules of prudence103

38.Gross negligence105

39.Manslaughter106

40.Negligence as to consequence, as to circum-stance, and as to matter of " defence "112

41.Other crimes requiring negligence at common law115

42.Crimes of negligence under statute115

43.Reasons for punishing negligence122

4.THE UNINTENDED VICTIM OR MODE125

44.Unintended mode125

45.General malice125

46.Transferred malice126

47.Malice transferred only within the same crime128

48.Transferred malice perhaps confined to cases of negligence132

49.The rationale of transferred malice134

50.Is there a doctrine of " transferred negligence "?137

51.Mistaken victim, and other irrelevant mistakes138

5.MENs REA As AFFECTED BY IGNORANCE OF FACT140

52.Unknown circumstances and intention140

53.Application of the rule to statutory crimes requiring wilfulness142

54.Unknown circumstances and recklessness148

55.Recklessness caused by ignorance of law154

56.Statutory crimes requiring knowledge： actual and imputed knowledge156

57.The doctrine of wilful bilndness157

58.The requirement of knowledge as affecting an issue of recklessness159

59.The requirement of knowledge and ignorance of law160

60.The interpretation of " permits," " allows,"" suffers," " causes "163

61.The word " knowledge " as applying to all the elements of the actus reus168

62.Belief true by accident； untrue " knowledge "169

63.Forgotten knowledge170

64.Offences requiring mens rea as to concomitant circumstances171

65.Application of the rules in offences against the person172

66.Application of the rules in bigamy176

67.Burden of proof of mistake184

68.Immaterial mistake184

69.Intent to commit a lesser degree of wrong185

70.Causally inoperative mistake199

71.The reasonableness of mistake201

72.Reasonable mistake under statute205

73.Mistake as to a circumstance of excuse： private defence206

74.——： The power of arrest213

6.STRICT RESPONSIBILITY215

75.The implied requirement of mens rea215

76.The change from strict to literal construction:public welfare offences217

77.——：Offences connected with sale218

78.——：Offences of possession227

79.——：Master and servant231

80.——：Road traffic231

81.General observations on public welfare offences234

82.Quasi-civil wrongs237

83.Strict responsibility in respect of the age of a female, and in bigamy239

84.Strict responsibility for inchoate crime245

85.Responsibility for contempt of court246

86.Strict responsibility in other more serious crimes250

87.Vacillations in the requirement of mens rea252

88.Subordinate legislation254

89.Arguments for and against strict responsibility255

90.Legislative suggestions261

7.VICARIOUS RESPONSIBILITY266

91.The general attitude towards vicarious responsi-bility266

92.The rule at common law267

93.Statutory exceptions： express words and implication269

94.Quasi-civil wrongs270

95.The licensee cases270

96.The extensive construction of verbs273

97.Subordinate legislation285

98.The responsibility of the servant285

99.Conclusion285

8.IGNORANCE OF LAW287

100.Law and fact distinguished287

101.Ignorance of the criminal law is generally no defence288

102.Justification of the rule289

103.Exceptions relating to status and mens rea293

104.The temporal operation of statutes and dele-gated legislation295

105.Superior orders296

106.Defendant misled as to the law302

107.Mistake as to private right and as to the civil law304

108.Claim of right in malicious damage to property305

109.Claim of right in crimes requiring wilfulness317

110.Claim of right in crimes requiring knowledge320

111.Claim of right in larceny, quasi-larceny and extortion321

112.Claim of right in other crimes against property327

113.Claim of right in crimes of fraud329

114.Claim of right： the burden of proof332

115.Claim of right in other crimes332

116.Further consideration of the distinction between mistake of criminal and of civil law341

117.Summary of claim of right as a defence344

9.PRINCIPALS AND ACCESSORIES346

118.Participation in crime346

119.Principals in the first degree346

120.Innocent agents349

121.Principals in the second degree353

122.Becoming a secondary party by omission or by negligence360

123.Accessories before the fact362

124.Supply of tools and materials366

125.Other facilitation of crime380

126.Where the accessory is not the promoter of the mischief381

127.Withdrawal by the accessory383

128.Accessories before in unpremeditated crimes385

129.Conviction as secondary party of one who could not have been convicted as perpetrator386

130.Parties to the same act guilty of different degrees of crime390

131." Unenforceable crimes "： suicide391

132.Secondary parties： the mental element394

133.Acts beyond the scope of the common purpose396

134.Resistance to arrest； the duration of common responsibility400

135.The responsibility of secondary parties for mistakes401

136.The responsibility of secondary parties for probable consequences402

137.Small importance of the distinctions between parties to a crime404

138.Accessories after the fact409

139.Interfering with the course of justice415

140.Obstructing the police； offences of harbouring418

141.Omissions to prevent or reveal crime422

10.MENTAL DISORDER428

142.Criminal and non-criminal commitment428

143.Insanity on arraignment or during trial433

144.The medical examination of accused persons438

145.The McNaughten rules441

146.The definition of insanity442

147.Subnormality (mental deficiency)447

148.Insanity a matter for the defence448

149.The function of the jury452

150.Trial on indictment： form of verdict of insanity454

151.——： Result of verdict of insanity456

152.Mental treatment by sentence of the court460

153.Executive discretion467

154.The strategy of the defence of insanity473

155.Procedure in magistrates’ courts475

156.Analysis of the McNaughten rules： (1) ignorance of the act477

157.Non-insane automatism482

158.The extensive interpretation of the first question490

159.Analysis of the McNaughten rules： (2) ignorance of wrong492

160.Analysis of the McNaughten rules： (3) delusions497

161.Difficulties and anomalies of the McNaughten rules501

162.Insane impulse under the McNaughten rules507

163.The movement to recognise insane impulse as a defence510

164.The movement to extend exemption to insanity generally513

165.The burden of proof of insanity in crimes requiring mens rea516

166.Insanity, mistake, and mens rea521

167.Insanity and negligence： the burden of proof527

168.Insanity and drunkenness529

169.Insanity and infancy532

170.Psychopaths532

171.Neurotics538

172.The doctrine of partial responsibility540

173.Diminished responsibility： scope of the defence541

174.——： Initiative with the defence549

175.Distinguishing between the forms of manslaughter549

176.Treating a defence of diminished responsibility as raising an issue of sanity550

177.Sentencing policy in cases of diminished responsibility551

11.DRUNKENNESS559

178.Drunkenness generally no defence559

179.Exceptions： insanity and involuntary drunken-ness560

180.Alcoholics563

181.Should drunkenness exempt from punishment?564

182.Drunkenness as rebutting intention or foresight of consequence568

183.Drunkenness causing mistake or ignorance572

12.THE PRINCIPLE OF LEGALITY575

184.The maxim Nulla poena sine lege575

185.Certainty in draftsmanship578

186.Non-retroactivity579

187.The accessibility of law582

188.Strict construction586

189.The development of the common law592

190.The offence of public mischief596

191.The principle critically considered600

192.Application to punishment606

13.INCITEMENT609

193.The crime incited609

194.The mental element611

195.Acts constituting incitement612

196.Punishment613

14.ATTEMPT614

197.The crime attempted614

198.Incitement and attempt616

199.The mental element618

200.The actus reus in attempt621

201.Actus reus ： (1) The proximity rule622

202.The equivocality theory of proximity629

203.Rationale of the proximity rule631

204.Statutory extensions633

205.Actus reus ： (2) Attempting a non-existent crime633

206.Actus reus ： (3) Factual impossibility635

207.Actus reus： (4) Must the accused be " on the job "?638

208.Merger653

209.Punishment and procedure654

210.Persons found in suspicious circumstances： the Prevention of Crimes Act655

211.The Vagrancy Act656

15.CONSPIRACY663

212.Acts constituting conspiracy663

213.Requirement of two or more parties669

214.Immunity from committing or from being prosecuted for the substantive crime671

215.Husband and wife in the law of conspiracy675

216.The mental element677

217.Technicalities of the verdict678

218.Evidence679

219.The judicial attitude to conspiracy counts where the crime is consummated683

220.Punishment685

221.The object of conspiracy： to commit crime686

222.——： To defraud688

223.——： To commit other torts696

224.——： To commit or procure a breach of contract699

225.——： To produce a public mischief702

226.Justification of the law of conspiracy710

16.PREVENTIVE JUSTICE AND THE RULE OF LAW714

227.Binding over for apprehended crime714

228.Binding over for other conduct716

17.NECESSITY, IMPOSSIBILITY AND GOOD MOTIVE722

229.Statutory provisions722

230.Opinions upon necessity as a ground of justification723

231.Authorities on the defence of necessity724

232.Theoretical basis and limits728

233.Necessity in criminal codes731

234.Necessity distinguished from other justifications732

235.Necessity and negligence734

236.Necessity and larceny734

237.Necessity and homicide737

238.Resistance to a necessary act.745

239.Belief in necessity745

240.Impossibility746

241.Good motive748

18.DURESS AND COERCION751

242.Definition of duress751

243.Judicial authority on duress752

244.Overseas authorities and codes753

245.Opinions of writers upon duress754

246.Threats regarded as duress755

247.Crimes excepted from the defence759

248.The former law of coercion762

249.Coercion under statute764

250.Conduct under hypnotic influence768

19.CONSENT, FACILITATION AND OFFICIAL INSTIGATION770

251.Consent must be before the act.Undertaking not to prosecute770

252.Consent and facilitation in crimes against property771

253.Offender acting with pseudo—confederate：responsibility of latter774

254.——： Application of doctrine of innocent agency776

255.Responsibility of offender for his own acts.Entrapment resulting in consent779

256.Official instigation of crime782

20.STATUS790

257.The Sovereign790

258.Members of Parliament； the Royal Forces790

259.Foreign official position791

260.Aliens792

261.Act of state792

262.Exemption of the Crown from statutes793

263.Acts done for the purpose of entrapment795

264.Husband and wife799

21.CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS804

265.Terminology relating to age804

266.Guardianship procedure805

267.Juvenile courts809

268.Limits of jurisdiction811

269.The age of criminal responsibility814

270.Other substantive rules821

271.Procedure in juvenile courts822

272.Mental factors in juvenile delinquency825

273.Non-punitive treatment829

274.Action without proceeding in court836

275.The punishment of juveniles839

276.The responsibility of parents845

277.Proposals to raise the age of responsibility847

22.CORPORATIONS853

278.Former procedural difficulties853

279.Former substantial difficulties854

280.Examination of the alter ego doctrine857

281.Crimes for which a corporation can be convicted859

282.Public corporations862

283.The social policy of corporate responsibility862

284.Responsibility of officers and members865

285.Corporations as prosecutors870

23.THE BURDEN OF PROOF871

286.First meaning of burden of proof： risk of non-persuasion of the jury871

287.Second meaning： duty of going forward with evidence to satisfy the judge876

288.Persuasive presumptions882

289.The burden of proof of " automatism "886

290.The burden of proof in homicide891

291.The inference of intention894

292.Statutory reversals of onus896

293.Implied statutory reversal900

294.The burden of proof in bigamy906

295.Meaning of the term " defence "909

Index911