《FORMATION OF CONTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY UNDER ENGLISH FRENXH ISLAMIC AND IRANIAN LAW》求取 ⇩

PRELIMINARY PART GENERALIA3

Introduction3

SECTION ONEHISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE FOUR LEGAL SYSTEMS7

(1)CHAPTER ONE Outline of Each Legal System's History8

Ⅰ. English Law8

Ⅱ. French Law13

Ⅲ. Islamic Law17

Ⅳ. Iranian Law25

(2)CHAPTER TWO Comparative Observations on the Historical Developments of the Four Legal Systems41

Ⅰ. Dialectical Process41

Ⅱ. Divinity and Reality43

Ⅲ. Immutability and Change46

Ⅳ. Equity and Justice in Practice49

SECTION TWOSOURCES OF THE LAW UNDER THE FOUR LEGAL SYSTEMS55

Introduction: Meanings of'Source'55

(3)CHAPTER ONE Sources under Each Legal System56

Ⅰ. English Law56

A. Primary Sources56

1. Legislation56

2. Judicial Precedent58

B. Supplementary Sources60

1. Custom60

2. 'Books of Authority'61

C. Ancillary Sources61

1. Non-binding Judicial Decisions62

2. Law Reform Recommendations62

3. Legal Writings and Unofficial Compilations63

4. Certain European Community Decisions63

Ⅱ. French Law Problem of Technical Hierarchy63

A. Les lois (Laws)64

B. La jurisprudence (Judicial Precedent)65

C. La doctrine (Juristic Opinions)66

D. La coutume (Current Custom)67

Ⅲ. Islamic Law68

A. Conventional Formal Sources68

1. Primary Sources68

(a) Al-Qur'an; (The Koran)68

(b) Sunnah (Tradition)69

2. Secondary Sources71

(a) Ijma' (Consensus)71

(b) Certain Logical or Rational Principles72

(ⅰ) Sunni: Analogy (Qivas) and Certain Supplemental Principles72

(ⅱ)Shi'ah: Reason ('Aql) and Practical Principles73

B. Informal Supplementary Sources74

1. Custom74

2. Juristic Writings and'Rulings'75

3. Judicial Contribution75

4. Reconsiderational Thoughts and Legislative Formulation77

Ⅳ. Iranian Law77

A. Sources under the Constitutional Regime; 1906-197977

1. The Period of Formation78

2. The Period of Secularization79

(a) The Codification Phase79

(b) The Expansion Phase79

3. Recognized Sources up to Bahman 1357/Februarv 197980

(a) Binding Sources80

(ⅰ) Enacted Law80

(ⅱ) Judicial Decisions of the Supreme Court's Plenary Session80

(ⅲ) Custom and Usage81

(b) Persuasive Sources81

(ⅰ) Doctrinal Writings81

(ⅱ) French and Islamic, Shi'ah, Law81

(ⅲ) Judicial Decisions in General81

B. Sources under the Islamic Regime since Bahman 1357/February 197982

1. The Provisional Phase82

(a) Content82

(ⅰ) Islamic, Shi'ah, law82

(ⅱ) Existing Pre-Revolutionary Laws82

(b) Authority83

(ⅰ) Decrees and Instructions of the Leader83

(ⅱ) Legislative Resolutions of the Revolutionary Council83

(ⅲ) Executive and Administrative Regulations83

2. The Institutional Phase83

(a) Content83

(ⅰ) Existing and Adopted Laws and Regulations83

(ⅱ) Un-enacted Shiah Materials85

(b) Authority85

(ⅰ) Commands and Views of the Leader86

(ⅱ) Legislation by the Majlis under Control of the Guardian Council86

(ⅲ) Shi'ah Prevalent Views86

(ⅳ) Judicial Decisions87

(ⅴ) Custom and Usage87

(ⅵ) Doctrinal Writings87

(ⅶ) French and other Western Laws87

3. The Absolutist Phase88

4. The (Current) Revisional Phase88

5. Conclusion88

(4)CHAPTER TWO Summary, Assessment and Comparison of Sources under the Four Legal Systems89

Ⅰ. Summary of Sources under the Four Legal Systems89

Ⅱ. Assessment of the Relative Contribution of Formal Sources to the Development of the Law92

Ⅲ. Technical Means of Development of the Law100

A. Interpretation of the Law as a Tool100

B. Methodological Devices105

Ⅳ. Conclusion and Comparison115

SECTION THREEINITIATION TO THE LAW OF CONTRACT(S) EVOLUTION AND GENERAL TRAITS119

(5)CHAPTER ONE Genesis and Evolution of the Law of Contract(s)120

Introduction120

Ⅰ. Roman Law122

Ⅱ. English Law124

Ⅲ. Islamic Law128

Ⅳ. Concluding Comparison132

(6)CHAPTER TWO Law of Contracts and General Theory of Contract137

Ⅰ. Roman and Islamic Law of Contracts; Compared137

Ⅱ. French and English Law of Contract; Compared139

A. French Law140

B. English Law143

C. French and English Law Compared146

Ⅲ. Iranian Law; Comparatively Treated and Internationally Viewed148

Ⅳ. General Conclusion and Comparison151

(7)CHAPTER THREE Purview of the Law of Contract(s) Related Conceptualization and Terminology and Classification155

Ⅰ. The Status of Contract and 'Essential Conditions' of Formation155

A. French Law156

B. English Law157

C. Islamic Law157

D. Iranian Law157

E. Summary Conclusion and Comparison158

Ⅱ. Definition of a Contract159

A. English Law159

B. Islamic Law160

C. French Law160

D. Iranian Law161

E. Summary Conclusion and Comparison163

Ⅲ. Classification of Contract164

A. Roman Law164

B. French Law165

C. English Law167

D. Islamic Law169

E. Iranian Law170

F. Summary Conclusion and Comparison173

Ⅳ. Contract in Theory and in Practice175

Ⅴ. Treatment and Presentation of the Work180

A. Problems of Treatment181

1. Problems peculiar to a system181

2. Problems related to a Comparative Study of Several Systems183

B. Exposition of the Work184

PART ONEBASIC NOTIONS RELATING TO THE FORMATION OF CONTRACT(S)187

SECTION ONELEGAL FUNCTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS189

(8)CHAPTER ONE Range of Psychological Elements190

Introduction190

Ⅰ. English Law: 'Intention to Create Legal Relations', 'Consent' and 'Mutual Assent'or 'Consensus ad idem'190

Introductory Note190

A. 'Intention to Create Legal Regulations'191

1. Generally Considered an Independent Requirement192

2. Requirement Challenged; 'Bargain' through 'Exchange of Promises'193

3. Functional Role194

B. 'Mutual Assent' or Consensus ad idem195

1. Origin and Nature195

2. Wide-spread Objections196

(a) Fictitious Character196

(b) Incompatibility; Note on 'Signature Rule' and the 'Plea of non est factum'196

C. 'Consent'198

1. Relation with'Intention'198

(a) Common Feature198

(b) Distinct Feature198

2. Criticism198

D. Summary Conclusion198

Ⅱ. French Law: Volonte (Will) and Consentement (Consent)200

Introductory Note200

A. Volonte201

B. Consentement201

C. Absence of Volonte; and Vices du consentement202

D. Autonomic de la volonte and its Relation with Consentement203

E. Summary Conclusion204

Ⅲ. Islamic Law; Qasd (Intention), Rida (Consent), Iradah (Will) and Ikhtiyar (Freedom of Choice)205

Introductory Note205

A. 'Intention' and 'Consent'; Shi'ah and Sunni Law Compared205

1. Relation to 'Freedom of Choice' and 'Will'205

(a) 'Freedom of Choice'206

(b) 'Will'206

(c) Comparison of Concepts207

2. Differentiation of'Intention of Word' (Qasd al-Lafz) and 'Intention of Meaning' (Qasd al-Ma'na) in Shi'ah Law208

(a) Exposition of differentiation208

(b) Ensuing Anomalies208

(ⅰ) Discerning Infants208

(ⅱ) Utterances in Jest209

(ⅲ) Lapsus linguae209

(c) Attempts to Resolve Anomalies210

B. Defects in Consent ('Uyub al-Rida) and 'Options' (Khiyarat); Functional Comparison210

C. Summary Conclusion210

Ⅳ. Iranian Law: Qasd (Intention) and Rida (Consent)211

Introductory Note211

A. 'Intention to Create' (Qasd-i insha")212

1. Significance of the Term212

2. Provisionsof Article 191 of the CCI212

B. Respective Roles of 'Intention' and 'Consent'213

1. Mixed Adoption216

2. 'Defects in Consent'and'Options'Juxtaposed214

3. Defects in Consent and Absence of Intention214

(a) Provisions of Articles 195 and 199 of the CCI214

(b) Criticism of Provisions215

(ⅰ) Article 195215

(ⅱ) Article 199215

C. Summary Conclusion216

Ⅴ. General Conclusion and Comparison216

(9)CHAPTER TWO Exteriorization of Psychological Elements: 'Obtectivity' Versus 'Subjectivity'219

Introduction219

Ⅰ. French, German and English Law220

A. French and German Law Compared221

1. Apparent Divergence in Principle221

2. Affinity in Detailed Rules221

B. French and English Law Compared223

1. Conceptual Difference223

2. Effects of Conceptual Difference225

(a) On Topical Treatment225

(b) On Technical Structure226

(ⅰ) 'Outward Appearance' and the 'State of Mind'226

(ⅱ) Test of Reasonableness and Custom and Usage230

C. Summary Conclusion231

Ⅱ. Islamic Law231

A. Consensualistic Approach232

1. Koranic Versus (Ayat)232

2. Traditions (Ahadith)233

3. Maxim233

4. Brief Appraisal233

B. Formalistic Approach234

1. Prevalent View234

2. Brief Appraisal235

C. Summary Conclusion235

Ⅲ. Iranian Law236

A. Primary Rule: Weight of Inner Intention236

1. Provisions of Article 191 of the CCI236

2. Supplementary Provisions of the CCI237

(a) On Contracts Resembling a Sale237

(ⅰ) Barter ('Mu'awadah')237

(ⅱ) 'Composition' (Sulh)238

(ⅲ) 'Sale on Condition'('Bay'-i sharti238

(b) On debts '239

(ⅰ) Transactions to'Evade a Debt'239

(ⅱ) Gratuitous Guarantee240

("Daman-i tabarru'i) of a Debt240

(ⅲ) Transfer of a Debt240

B. Temperament of the Primary Rule241

1. Onus of Proof241

(a) Proving the Intention of Another Party241

(ⅰ) Transactions to 'Evade a Debt'241

(ⅱ) Gratuitous Guarantee241

(b) External Circumstances and the Shift of Onus242

2. Cross-Purpose; Mistake242

3. Reference to Custom and Usage242

4. Statements and Presumptions243

(a) Statements Made or Considered Made243

(b) Presumptions Giving Effect to Appearance244

5. Effects of Adoption of Shi'ah 'Options' (Khiyarat)244

C. Summary Conclusion and Note on Some Arab Countries244

Ⅳ. General Conclusion and Comparison245

(10)CHAPTER THREE Means of Expression of Psychological Elements248

Introduction248

Ⅰ. Classification of the Means of Expression249

Introductory Note249

A. French Law: Various Classifications250

B. English Law: Limited Classification into Words and Conduct251

C. Iranian Law: Absence of Indigenous Classification, Compared with French Law252

1. Doctrinal Suggestions252

2. Analysis and Proposition253

D. Islamic Law: Primary Classification into Spoken Words and Other Expressions255

E. Conclusion and Comparison256

Ⅱ. Means of Expression under Islamic Law257

Introductory Note: Differentiation According to Binding Force of Contracts257

A. Predominance of Word of Mouth (Lafz)260

1. Historical Reasons260

(a) Clerical Literacy Privilege260

(b) Religious Significance of Words261

(c) Miracle of the Koran261

2. Technical Reasons261

(a) Linguistic Considerations262

(b) 'Tradition of Speech' (Hadith al-Kalam) and Ansari's Interpretation262

3. Views of Shi'ah Jurists263

(a) Prevalent View of Earlier Jurists263

(b) Contrary View of Later Jurists; Shahidial-Tabrizl265

B. Other Means of Expression266

1. Sign (Isharah)266

(a) Gesticulative Signs266

(b) Writing267

2. Conduct (Mu'atat)268

(a) Solemn and Simple Juristic Acts Distinguished269

(b) Shadidi al-Tabrizi's Criterion on Simple Contracts270

(c) Appraisal of Criterion and Further Differentiation271

C. Summary Conclusion272

Ⅲ. Means of Expression under Iranian Law273

A. Word of Mouth273

B. Writing274

C. Sign276

D. Conduct277

E. Summary Conclusion278

Ⅳ. General Conclusion and Comparison278

(11)CHAPTER FOUR Silence; Question of Efficacy280

Ⅰ. General Principle: Silence Not Effective280

Ⅱ. Efficacy of Silence an Exception in Making Acceptance283

A. Categories of Instances under French Law283

1. Existence of Prior Relations283

2. In the absence of Prior Relations285

(a) Warranted by Commercial Customs285

(b) To Offeree's Exclusive Advantage (Offre in favorem)285

3. Note on International Sale of Goods286

B. Instances under English Law Categorized287

1. Silence Meant and Understood to be Effective287

2. Duty to Speak288

3. Silence Related to Conduct288

C. Iranian Law, as Compared with French Law289

D. Note on the Law of Some Arab Countries291

E. Note on Islamic Law291

Ⅲ. Exceptional Efficacy of Silence as an Offer292

A. French and Iranian Law: No Genuine Exception Recognized292

1. French Law293

2. Iranian Law293

B. Islamic Law: Exception in a Virgin's Marriage294

C. English Law; Exception under Recent Developments on Abandonment of Arbitration References295

Ⅳ. Critique and Comparison298

A. Appraisal of Common Analyses on Efficacy of Silence298

1. Silence as Acceptance and as Offer298

2. Silence or Conduct?300

3. Efficacy of Silence as Expression of Intention or a Result of the Policy of the Law?301

4. Equal application to Cases of Waiver or Lapse302

B. General Conclusion and Comparison304

SECTION TWODETERMINATION AND FUNCTION OF OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE307

Introduction: Two Contrasting Approaches307

(12)CHAPTER ONE The Doctrine of Offer and Acceptance under French and English Law309

Introductory Note: Basic Similarity of Approaches309

Ⅰ. French Law309

A. Traditional Approach310

B. Modern Approach312

1. Criticism of and Refinement on Chronological Sequence312

2. Possibility of Dispensing with the Mechanism of Sequential Offer and Acceptance313

C. Exceptional Determination of Offer and Acceptance by the Law314

1. Certain Provisions of the CCF314

(a) General315

(b) Specific315

(ⅰ) Proposition315

(ⅱ) Criticism315

2. Certain Recent Legislation318

D. Summary Conclusion318

Ⅱ. English Law319

A. Classical Approach320

B. Academic Critical Observations321

C. Problem Areas and Judicial Decisions322

1. Multipartite Contracts323

(a) Through an Intermediary323

(ⅰ) Joining a Race through a Club323

(ⅱ) Shareholders' Relations in a Company324

(b) Direct Multilateral Contracts325

(ⅰ) Industrial Projects325

(ⅱ) Syndicated Financial Arrangements326

2. Bipartite Contracts327

(a) PreContractual Correspondence Ambivalent327

(ⅰ) Subsequent Contractual Conduct327

(ⅱ) Conflicting Documents and the "Battle of Forms"328

(b) Agreement Inferred and Simultaneous Expressions333

(ⅰ) Problem of Finding Fitting 'Slots' for the Facts333

(ⅱ) Problem of Simultaneous'Messages'335

(c) Third Person's Intervention336

D. Summary Conclusion336

Ⅲ. Note on Comparison338

(13)CHAPTER TWO The Doctrine of Offer and Acceptance in Islamic (Shi'ah) Law339

Introductory Note: Peculiarity of Approach339

Ⅰ. Views of Shi'ah Jurists340

A. Classical Majority View340

1. Historical Sketch340

2. Basic Feature341

3. Summary of Na'ini's Formulation342

(a) Statement of Principles343

(ⅰ) Concept of a Contract343

(ⅱ) Verbalistic Requirement343

(ⅲ) "Giving and Taking"343

(b) Application According to Categories of Contracts344

(ⅰ) Contracts of Mutual Disposition344

(ⅱ) Contracts of One-sided Disposition345

(ⅲ) Contracts of Authorization345

(c) Brief Appraisal of Na'ini's View345

(ⅰ) Exposition of Classical View345

(ⅱ) Technical Flaws345

(ⅲ) Tenability Today346

B. Recent Minority View346

1. Basic Feature346

2. Historical Sketch346

3. Summary of Khomeini's Deviation347

(a) Analytical Premises347

(b) Dispensability of Mechanism of'Offer and Acceptance'348

(c) Criterion for Determining the Offeror and the Acceptor349

(ⅰ) In a Sale by Words349

(ⅱ) In a Sale by Conduct349

(d) Brief Appraisal of Khomeini's View350

(ⅰ) Absence of Generality350

(ⅱ) Shortcomings on a Sale350

(ⅲ) Tenability Today350

Ⅱ. Author's Analysis of Shi'ah Classical View of Offer and Acceptance351

Basic Feature and Proposed Categorization351

A. Contracts Involving a Proprietary Transfer351

Table One, showing the position of offeror and acceptor in:352

1. Donation or gift, hibah352

2. Sale, bay352

3. Loan of fungible things, qard352

4. Pawn, pledge or mortgage, rahn352

5. Deposit, wadi'ah or amanah352

6. Loan of specific things, ariyyah352

7. Lease or hire, ijarah352

8. Testamentary disposition, wasiyyah352

9. Endowment, waqf352

B. Contracts Involving Property and Labour Participation352

1. Mudarabah (Capital-Labour Partnership)353

2. Muzara'ah (Share-cropping)353

3. Musaqat (Tree-tending/Fruit-sharing)354

(Table Two, showing the position of offeror and acceptor in above-mentioned three contracts)354

C. Contracts Involving Three Parties354

1. Daman (Guarantee)354

2. Hawalah (Transfer of Debt)355

(a) Typical355

(b) Atypical355

3. Kafalah (Personal Suretyship)357

(Table Three, showing the position of offeror and acceptor in above-mentioned three contracts)358

D. Contracts Involving Deputation359

1. Wakalah (Mandate, Agency)359

2. Shirkah (Partnership)359

E. Contracts Involving a Special Feature360

1. Sulh (Composition)360

2. Ju'alah (Contract of Reward)361

3. Sabq and Ramayah (Horse-racing and Lance-throwing)361

4. Nikah (Marriage)361

Ⅲ. Summary Conclusion363

(14)CHAPTER THREE Doctrine of Offer and Acceptance in Iranian Law366

Introductory Note: Mixed Approach366

Ⅰ. Arguments for the Reception of the Shi'ah Notion in the CCI367

A. Primary Category of the CCI Provisions368

1. A Contract in General368

2. Certain Specific Contracts368

(a) Deposit (Wadi'ah)369

(b) Mandate (Wakalah)369

(c) Donation (Hibah)369

(d) Common Feature369

B. Secondary Category of the CCI Provisions369

1. Unauthorized Transactions (Mu'amalat-ifuduli)370

2. Contracts Involving Three Parties370

(a) Guarantee (Daman)370

(b) Transfer of Debt (Hawalah)371

(c) Personal Suretyship (Kafalah)372

(d) Common Feature372

3. 'Contract'of Special Nature373

(a) Endowment (Waqf)373

(b) Testamentary Disposition (Wasiyyah)373

(c) Civil Partnership (Skirkah)374

(d) Common Feature375

Ⅱ. Arguments Against the Reception of the Shi'ah Notion in the CCI375

A. Weaknesses of the Contrary View375

B. Silence of CCI on Certain Contracts376

C. Variant Approach of the CCI to Shi'ah Law377

1. General Provisions377

2. Certain Specific Contracts378

(a) Marriage (Izdiwaj; Nikah)378

(b) Sale (Bay')378

Ⅲ. Summary Conclusion: Practical Aspects and Consequences378

A. Dispensation with Pre-determination of Offer and Acceptance379

B. Dispensation with Sequential Offer and Acceptance380

(15)CHAPTER FOUR Summary and Comparison of the Doctrine of Offer and Acceptance under the Four Legal Systems382

Ⅰ. Historical Development of the Doctrine382

Ⅱ. Present Standing of the Doctrine385

Ⅲ. Instances Deviating from or Defying the Doctrine387

Ⅳ. Summary Review and Conclusion390

PART TWOMECHANISM OF FORMATION OF A CONTRACT393

Introduction393

SECTION ONEOFFER397

Introduction397

(16)CHAPTER ONE Attributes of Offer and Distinction from Invitation to Make an Offer398

Ⅰ. Formalistic Approach; Shi'ah Law398

A. The Rule of Definiteness (Tanjiz) of Offer399

B. Analysis of the Rule399

C. Application of the Rule401

1. Influence of Formulas (Siyagh)401

2. Impact of Pre-determination of Formulas402

D. Brief Appraisal of the Approach403

Ⅱ. 'Consensualistic' Approach: English, French and Iranian Law403

A. English Law404

1. Definition405

(a) Definitions Linked to 'Willingness'405

(b) Definitions Linked to 'Promise'406

(c) Common Elements and the Question of Definiteness406

2. Differentiation of Offer and Invitation to Treat406

(a) Various Fact Situations406

(b) Difficulty of Categorization407

(c) Emergence of Patterns408

3. Summary Conclusion409

B. French Law409

1. Definitions and'Conditions'of Offer409

(a) Definiteness (Fermete) of the Offer410

(b) Offer Unequivocal (Depourvue d'equivoque)411

(c) Completeness (Precision) of the Offer411

2. Differentiation of Offer and Invitation to Make an Offer411

(a) Particular Instances412

(b) Contracts intuitu personae412

3. Summary Conclusion413

C. Iranian Law414

1. Definition and Conditions of Offer414

(a) Definition or Description414

(b) Conditions of Offer414

2. Differentiation of Offer and Invitation to Make an Offer415

(a) Approach to Nominate and Innominate Contracts Differentiated415

(b) Problem of Boderline Cases415

3. Summary Conclusion417

D. Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980417

Ⅲ. General Conclusion and Comparison418

(17)CHAPTER TWO Variety and Communication of Offers421

Ⅰ. Variety of Offers421

A. Offer Calling for an Act: Problem of 'Unilateral' Contracts421

1. English Law422

2. French Law423

3. Islamic and Iranian Law424

4. Summary Comparison425

B. Standing Offer and Offer for Continuous Performance426

1. English Law426

2. French Law427

3. Islamic Law428

4. Iranian Law429

5. Summary Comparison431

C. Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980431

Ⅱ. Communication of the Offer432

A. English Law432

1. Unilateral Contracts433

2. Certain Bilateral Contracts433

B. French Law434

C. Islamic Law435

D. Iranian Law436

E. Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980436

F. Summary Comparison437

Ⅲ. General Conclusion and Comparison438

(18)CHAPTER THREE Duration and the Question of Revocation of an Offer440

Ⅰ. Legal Systems with Tendency for Revocability of Offer440

A. Islamic Law440

1. Shi'ahLaw440

2. Sunni Law441

B. English Law442

1. Basic Principle: Revocability of Offer and Communication of Revocation442

2. Erosion of Basic Principle443

(a) Recommendations for Modification443

(b) Exceptions to Principle443

(ⅰ) The'Postal Rule'444

(ⅱ) Statutory Exception444

(ⅲ) Difficulty in 'Unilateral' Contracts444

(c) Latitude in the United States of America445

(ⅰ) Two Offers in One Promise445

(ⅱ) Application of Promissory Estoppel446

(ⅲ) Statutory Exception446

3. Summary Conclusion446

Ⅱ. Legal Ssystems with Tendency for Irrevocability of Offer447

A. French Law, as Developed447

1. Offer Accompanied by a Delay for Acceptance447

(a) Fixed Delay Given448

(b) Prompt Reply Requested448

2. Offer without Specified Delay (Offre simple)448

(a) Principle of Revocability448

(b) Deviation:'Reasonable Delay'Maintained449

3. Applicable 'Reasonable Delays' and Layers of Obligations450

(a) Justification of'Reasonable Delay'450

(b) Binding Force of Offer over Two Phases450

4. Analysis of Underlying'Obligation' and 'Power'450

(a) Origins of Offeror's Obligation450

(b) Time-span of'Reasonable Delays'over Two Phases450

5. Juridical Basis of Offeror's Obligation452

(a) Collateral Contract (Avant-contrat) and Culpa in contrahendo452

(b) Unilateral Undertaking454

(c) Delictual Responsibility and'Abuse of Right'455

6. Summary Conclusion457

B. Certain other Legal Systems458

1. German and Italian Law458

2. Provisions under Egyptian and Iraqi Law458

3. Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980459

Ⅲ. Ambiguity under Iranian Law460

Introductory Note: Silence of the CCI and Varying Approaches460

A. Secular Approach460

1. Differentiation of Various Hypotheses460

(a) Time-frame for Offeree's Acceptance461

(ⅰ) Express Delay461

(ⅱ) Inferable Delay461

2. The Question of Offeror's Obligation462

(a) 'Simple Offer'462

(b) Offer with a Delay463

(ⅰ) Delay Expressly Given and Accepted463

(ⅱ) Delay to be Inferred463

3. Basis and Juristic Nature of Offeror's Arguable Obligation465

(a) 'Avant-contrat'465

(b) Unilateral Undertaking466

(c) Delictual Responsibility467

B. Religious Approach467

C. Summary Conclusion468

Ⅳ. General Conclusion and Comparison468

(19)CHAPTER FOUR Termination of Offer471

Ⅰ. Passage of Time471

A. French and English Law472

1. Fixed Delay Given472

2. No Delay Given472

(a) English Law472

(b) French Law473

(c) Determination of an Implied Reasonable Delay473

B. German Law, Compared474

C. Islamic Law, 'Unity of Meeting-place'; Compared474

1. Brevity of Time Allowed475

2. Compared with Other Legal Systems475

D. Iranian Law, Analysed; 'Option of Meeting-place'476

1. Delay Given477

2. No Delay Given477

E. General Conclusion and Comparison478

Ⅱ. Supervening Death or Incapacity478

A. French Law479

1. Judicial Decisions479

2. Doctrinal Opinions480

3. Summary Conclusion481

B. English Law481

1. Death481

2. Incapacity482

3. Summary Conclusion483

C. German and Italian Law483

D. Islamic Law484

E. Iranian Law485

1. General Approach485

2. Theoretical Basis485

(a) Incapacity486

(b) Death486

(ⅰ) If Offer Irrevocable486

(ⅱ) If Offer Revocable486

3. Summary Conclusion487

F. General Conclusion and Comparison487

SECTION TWOACCEPTANCE489

Introduction489

(20)CHAPTER ONE Certainty of Acceptance491

Ⅰ. Principle of Definiteness491

Ⅱ. Definiteness Inferred492

A. Acceptance through Conduct493

B. Performance as Acceptance When Offer Calls for an Act494

1. Complete Performance494

(a) English and French Law494

(b) Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980495

(c) Iranian and Islamic Law495

2. Part Performance496

(a) English and French Law496

(b) Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980496

(c) Iranian and Islamic Law496

Ⅲ. General Conclusion and Comparison497

(21)CHAPTER TWO Conformity of Acceptance to the Offer500

Ⅰ. Statement of Principle501

Ⅱ. Question of Variance502

A. Immaterial Variance502

1. Seeming Variance502

(a) Verbal Variance502

(b) Wishful Expression504

(c) Meaningless Statement504

2. Expressing Terms Implied by the Law505

B. Enquiry and Acknowledgement, No Variance506

1. Enquiry507

2. Acknowledgement508

3. Manner of Distinction509

C. Material Variance509

D. Comparative Summary510

Ⅱ. Effects of a Material Variance511

A. Prevents Conclusion of Proposed Contract511

1. Statement of the Rule511

2. Rationale of the Rule513

B. Amounts to Rejection of and May Destroy the Original Offer514

1. English Law514

2. French Law515

3. Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980515

4. Iranian and Islamic Law515

C. May Constitute a Fresh Offer517

1. French and English Law517

2. Islamic (Shi'ah) Law519

(a) Majority View: Negative519

(b) Minority View: Affirmative; 'Acceptance Precedent' and 'Offer Subsequent'520

(c) Marriage, an Exception521

3. Iranian Law522

4. Note on Sunni Law, Some Arab Countries and the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980522

D. Comparative Summary522

Ⅳ. General Conclusion and Comparison524

(22)CHAPTER THREE Correlation of Acceptance with the Offer526

Ⅰ. Question of Acceptance by the Addressee of the Offer526

A. In Common Pattern of Offer and Acceptance526

B. When No Offer and Acceptance Discernible528

1. English and French Law529

2. Islamic and Iranian Law529

C. Comparative Summary530

Ⅱ. Problem of Acceptance in Identical Cross-Offers530

A. French and English Law531

1. French Law531

2. English Law531

3. Difference in Reasoning532

B. Iranian Law533

C. Islamic Law534

D. Comparative Summary534

Ⅲ. General Conclusion and Comparison535

(23)CHAPTER FOUR Communication of Acceptance Under French and English Law536

Introduction536

Ⅰ. English Law537

A. Communication Required as a Primary Rule538

1. Application of the Rule538

2. Rationale of the Rule539

3. Modes of Communication540

4. Waiver of Communication:'Unilateral'Contracts541

B. Exception in Contracts inter absentes: The 'Postal Rule'542

1. Application of the Rule542

2. Rationale of the Rule542

3. Problems in Transition544

(a) Loss or Delay in Delivery544

(b) Error in Transmission545

C. Summary Conclusion547

Ⅱ. French Law548

A. Contracts inter praesentes548

1. Communication in Broad Context548

2. Reflection on Contracts inter praesentes548

3. Communication Generally Assumed548

4. Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980550

B. Contracts inter absentes551

1. Various Theories551

(a) Declaration Theory551

(b) Expedition (or Dispatch) Theory552

(c) Reception Theory553

(d) Information Theory553

(e) Mixed or Eclectic Theories554

2. Application and Polarization of Theories554

3. Textual Provisions on Various Theories and Critique Thereof555

(a) On Declaration Theory555

(ⅰ) Texts Invoked555

(ⅱ) Objections Raised555

(b) On Information Theory556

(ⅰ) Text Invoked556

(ⅱ) Objections Raised557

(c) Conflicting Generalizations557

4. Question of Law and Question of Fact557

(a) Question of Law557

(b) Question of Fact558

(c) Note on Fault in Transmission559

5. Judicial Trends559

(a) Cour de cassation559

(ⅰ) On the Time of Acceptance559

(ⅱ) On the Place of Acceptance560

(b) Trial Courts561

6. Doctrinal Tnedencies561

7. Note on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980563

C. Summary Conclusion564

Ⅲ. English and French Law Compared566

(24)CHAPTER FIVE Communication of Acceptance under Islamic Law: Contrasted570

Ⅰ. Contracts inter praesentes: Actual Communication Required570

Ⅱ. Contracts inter absentes: Question of Validity571

A. 'Binding' (Lazim) Contracts571

1. Adverse Effect of Inefficacy of Writing572

2. Adverse Effect of the 'Unity of Meeting-place'573

3. Certain Latitude and Leeway575

4. Contract of Transfer of Debt (Hawalah)576

B. 'Facultative' (Ja'iz) Contracts577

1. Contract of Agency (Wakalah)577

2. Contract of Reward (Ju 'alah)579

C. Contracts in Between579

1. Contract of Mortgage or Pledge (Rahn)579

2. Contract of Donation (Hibah)580

Ⅲ. Summary Conclusion581

(25)CHAPTER SIX Communication of Acceptance under Iranian Law: as Compared with French and Islamic Law582

Ⅰ. Communication in Contracts inter praesentes582

Ⅱ. 'Instantaneity' and 'Sequence'584

A. Contracts through Instantaneous Means of Communication584

B. The Concept of'Sequence' (Muwalat)585

Ⅲ. Communication in Contracts inter absentes586

A. Declaration and Expedition Theories587

1. Exposition587

2. Objections588

B. Information and Reception Theories589

1. Exposition589

2. Objections590

C. Assessment and Proposition591

Ⅳ. Summary Conclusion592

(26)CHAPTER SEVEN The Time and the Place of Acceptance and of Contract: Comparatively Treated594

Ⅰ. Parties' Determination594

A. Date of Contract Varied from Date of Acceptance595

1. Contract Date Retrospectively Fixed595

2. Contract Date Projected into Future596

B. Note on Shi'ah Law with Bearing on Iranian Law596

1. Unauthorized (Fuduli) Transactions597

2. The 'Option of Meeting-place' [Khiyar al-Majlis)597

Ⅱ. Parties' Intention Not Known598

A. Contracts inter praesentes598

B. Contracts inter absentes599

Ⅲ. Consequences of Determining the Time and the Place of Acceptance and of Contract601

A. Consequences of the Time of Acceptance and/or Contract602

1. In Relation to the Formation of Contract602

2. In Relation to What Follows the Formation603

B. Consequences of the Place of Acceptance and/or Contract604

1. At National Level: Competent Court604

(a) Iranian Law604

(b) French Law605

(c) English Law605

2. At International Level: Conflict of Laws606

Ⅳ. Comparative Summary609

(27)EPILOGUE ON COMMUNICATION OF ACCEPTANCE611

General Conclusion and Comparison611

INDEX615