《AERIAL PIRACY AND INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM THE ILLEGAL DIVERSION OF AIRCRAFT AND INTERNATIONAL LAW》

Preface to Second,Revised Edition:Aerial Piracy as International Terrorism1

Chapter 1.The nature of the problem,and its definition5

1.Aerial Piracy,of Hijacking of Aircraft:herein of special legal nomenclature5

2.The Polycentricity of the problem-situation.The different species of Aerial Hijackings8

3.A plural problem-situation as demanding plural solutions?14

Chapter 2.The "special legal community" of the Air.The main participants in the international Air Communications process17

1.The United Nations Security Council and General Assembly18

2.The International Civil Aviation Organization(ICAO)21

3.The International Air Transport Association(IATA)23

4.The International Federation of Airline Pilots' Associations(IFALPA)26

5.The individual passenger28

Chapter 3.The Techniques of international legal problemsolving as applied to Aerial Hijackings31

1.The Treaty route:the multilateral convention36

(a)The Tokyo Convention of 1963.(Convention on Offences and certain other Acts Committed on board Aircraft)36

(b)The Hague Convention of 1970.(Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft)40

(c)The Montreal Convention of 1971.(Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation)45

(d)Enforcement of the Tokyo,The Hague,and the Montreal Conventions.Draft proposals for a Convention on Sanctions48

(e)Critique of the basic,Sanctions-based approach to enforcement of the Tokyo,The Hague,and the Montreal Conventions58

2.The Treaty route:the bilateral treaty(or limited,regional accord) approach62

3.The bilateral approach(continued):the informal accord or consensus67

4.International private action:international commercial or professional associations71

(a)The International Air Transport Association(IATA)71

(b)The International Federation of Airline Pilots' Associations(IFALPA)74

5.National action76

(a)National action in regard to bilateral air transport agreements76

(b)National penal laws78

(c)National administrative and police control measures81

(ⅰ)On-the-ground,pre-flight screenings and searches of passengers and luggage81

(ⅱ)Direct action:"sky marshals" and the application of force87

6.Individual action:legal action by the individual passenger89

Chapter 4.The objectives of international legal problem-solving in regard to Aerial Hijacking:the main alternative World Community options and their machinery-instrumental bases.93

Chapter 5.The balance-sheet of international legal problem-solving in regard to Aerial Hijacking: holistic or global solutions versus pragmatic, empirical, problem-oriented methods103

Chapter 6.Aerial Piracy and its legal control:two decades of the empirical,problem-oriented,step-by-step approach111

1.The problem as polycentric:a plurality of actors,problem-characterisations,and problem-solutions111

2.Different state actors,differing legal priorities111

3.De-ideologising the problem for consensual(inter-systemic)solutions113

4.Legally impermissible means of achieving even politically acceptable ends114

5.The "special legal community" of the Air and its problem-solving r？le115

6.Operational solutions:a plurality of complementary controls(national and international)115

(a)The International Convention route116

(b)"Quiet diplomacy"117

(c)National police controls:118

(ⅰ)pre-flight screenings118

(ⅱ)post-incident rescues120

7.Aerial Piracy as element in the larger International Terrorism problem123

Chapter 7.International Terrorism resurgent in the mid-1980s:political and legal contradictions in its national and international control127

1.International Terrorism:an old problem,not a new one127

2.Earlier ventures in international controls for international terrorism:the abortive League of Nations Convention,1937128

3.The United Nations sectorial(problem-oriented)approach to international controls:130

(a)The International Civil Aviation Organisation:special conventions on aerial piracy:130

(b)The Step-by-Step approach:U.N.Convention on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons,including Diplomatic Agents,1973134

(c)The Step-by-Step approach maintained:U.N.Convention against the Taking of Hostages,1979136

4.The limits(and possibilities)of the inductive approach to general principles outlawing international terrorism138

(a)The definitional problem:cultural and ideological relativism in an era of transition138

(b)The U.N.General Assembly Resolution on International Terrorism of 9 December 1985142

(c)"Regional"-sectorial solutions and their "special legal communities"144

(ⅰ)The Organisation of American States144

(ⅱ)The Western European states and the European Communities145

5.Practical dilemmas in transcending the sectorial(problemoriented,"regional") approaches148

(a)Reconciling different political-legal traditions:the Extradition obligation and the "political offences" exception,within the Western European and Western "special legal communities"150

(b)"State terrorism",a latter-day legal concept153

(c)Cutting the legal Gordian Knot:"Direct Action"156

6.Operational solutions for international terrorism in an era of transition163

(a)Achieving inter-systemic consensus:the Seven Industrial Democracies' Summits;East-West Détente and Détente process163

(b)The dialectic of development of International Law:interdependent problems,interdependent solutions165

(c)The pragmatic approach to international law-making on international terrorism167

(ⅰ)no global definitions,and no global solutions,at this time167

(ⅱ)incremental extensions of the present listing,in extenso,of legally prohibited terrorist acts167

(ⅲ)coordinating intra-systemic approaches168

(ⅳ)automatic extradition for terrorist offences168

(ⅴ)effective national police controls169

(ⅵ)the case for the "more moderate controls"169

(ⅶ)a plurality of approaches,a plurality of different arenas and actors170

7.Continuing contradictions in the development of Western policies on international terrorism171

(a)The U.S.Administration and the Iranian arms deal171

(b)The Reagan Doctrine,and the International Law on Terrorism172

(c)The Right of Self-Defence under the United Nations Charter,and its legal limits175

(d)The crucial r？le of Fact-Finding in international terrorism situations176

(e)Towards more effective national action on treaty-based,international terrorism control norms179

Addendum 1.Selected Bibliography183

(A)Aerial Piracy183

(B)International Terrorism(including Extradition)185

Addendum 2.International Conventions and other Acts189

(A)Aerial Piracy190

(B)International Terrorism(including Extradition)211

Index243