《SOURCEBOOK ON PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW》

1INTRODUCTION1

1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT2

1.2DEFINITIONS AND THE NATURE OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW5

1.2.1 The traditional view9

1.2.2 The modern view10

1.2.3 Contemporary theories11

1.3 IS INTERNATIONAL LAW REALLY LAW?20

1.4THE ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW30

1.4.1 The United Nations30

1.4.2 Judicial enforcement30

1.4.3 Loss of legal rights and privileges30

1.4.4 Self-help31

2THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MUNICIPAL LAW AND INTERNATIONAL LAW33

2.1 INTRODUCTION33

2.2THE THEORETICAL ISSUE33

2.2.1 Monism34

2.2.2 Dualism35

2.2.3 A third way?35

2.3THE PRACTICAL ISSUE38

2.3.1 Municipal law before international tribunal38

2.3.3International law in municipal courts39

2.3.3.1 Transformation and incorporation39

2.3.3.2 British practice40

2.3.3.3 The practice of other states45

2.3.4 The relationship between international law and European law46

2.3.5 The relationship between regional international law and universal international law57

3SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW59

3.1 INTRODUCTION59

3.2 ARTICLE 38 OF THE STATUTE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE63

3.3 TREATIES64

3.4CUSTOM65

3.4.1 Definitions of international custom66

3.4.2The material element71

3.4.2.1 State practice71

3.4.2.2 The extent of the practice73

3.4.2.3 The practice of dissenting states and persistent objectors74

3.4.2.4 Duration of practice74

3.4.3 The psychological element75

3.4.4 Treaties as evidence of customary law83

3.5GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LAW83

3.5.1 Some examples92

3.5.2 Equity93

3.6 JUDICIAL DECISIONS93

3.7 THE TEACHINGS OF THE MOST HIGHLY QUALIFIED PUBLICISTS OF THE VARIOUS NATIONS94

3.8 OTHER POSSIBLE SOURCES95

3.9 RESOLUTIONS OF HMTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS95

3.10 RESOLUTIONS OF REGIONAL ORGANISATIONS98

3.11 THE INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION AND CODIFICATION98

3.12 'SOFT LAW99

3.13 JUS COGENS OR PEREMPTORY NORMS100

4THE LAW OF TREATIES103

4.1 INTRODUCTION103

4.2DEFINITIONS125

4.2.1 Unilateral agreements126

4.2.2 Subjects of international law127

4.2.3 An intention to produce legal effects130

4.2.4 Legal effects under public international law130

4.2.5 Designation131

4.3CONCLUSION AND ENTRY INTO FORCE OF TREATIES131

4.3.1 Accrediting of negotiators131

4.3.2 Negotiation and adoption131

4.3.3 Authentication,signature and exchange132

4.3.4 Effect of signature132

4.3.5 Ratification132

4.3.6 Accessions and adhesions133

4.3.7 Entry into force133

4.3.8 Registration and publication133

4.4RESERVATIONS133

4.4.1 Definitions134

4.4.2 Validity of reservations134

4.5APPLICATION OF TREATIES137

4.5.1 The observance of treaties137

4.5.2 Non-retroactivity138

4.5.3 Territorial application138

4.5.4 Successive treaties138

4.5.5 Treaties and third parties139

4.6 AMENDMENT AND MODIFICATION141

4.7TREATY INTERPRETATION142

4.7.1 Aims and goals of interpretation142

4.7.2The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 Section 3143

4.7.2.1 Good faith143

4.7.2.2 Ordinary meaning143

4.7.2.3 Special meaning143

4.7.2.4 The context and the object and purpose144

4.7.2.5 Supplementary means of interpretation144

4.8 MULTILINGUAL TREATIES144

4.9VALIDITY OF TREATIES144

4.9.1 Non-compliance with municipal law requirements145

4.9.2 Error145

4.9.3 Fraud and corruption145

4.9.4Coercion145

4.9.4.1 Coercion of state representatives145

4.9.4.2 Coercion of a state145

4.9.5 Unequal treaties146

4.9.6 Jus cogens146

4.9.7 The effect of invalidity154

4.10TERMINATION,SUSPENSION OF AND WITHDRAWAL FROM TREATIES155

4.10.1 By consent155

4.10.2 Material breach155

4.10.3 Supervening impossibility of performance155

4.10.4 Fundamental change of circumstances156

4.10.5 Other possible grounds156

4.10.6 The effect of termination or suspension157

4.11 DISPUTE SETTLEMENT165

4.12 STATE SUCCESSION165

5THE SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW175

5.1 INTRODUCTION175

5.2THE SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW181

5.2.1Independent states181

5.2.1.1 Population and territory184

5.2.1.2 Government185

5.2.1.3 Capacity to enter into international relations/independence/sovereignty185

5.2.1.4 Permanence188

5.2.1.5 Legality188

5.2.1.6 State succession195

5.2.2Non self-governing territories/dependent states196

5.2.2.1 Colonies196

5.2.2.2 Protectorates197

5.2.2.3 Mandates and Trust Territories198

5.2.3 International organisations199

5.2.4 Individuals200

6RECOGNITION AND LEGITIMATION201

6.1 INTRODUCTION201

6.2THE THEORETICAL ISSUE201

6.2.1 The constitutive theory201

6.2.2 The declaratory theory202

6.3 NON-RECOGNITION203

6.4 RECOGNITION OF GOVERNMENTS204

6.5 DE FACTO AND DE JURE RECOGNITION205

6.6 COLLECTIVE RECOGNITION205

6.7THE LEGAL EFFECTS OF RECOGNITION IN MUNICIPAL LAW:UK PRACTICE219

6.7.1 Loews standi219

6.7.2 Effectiveness of legislative and executive acts221

6.7.3 Sovereign immunity222

7TERRITORIAL RIGHTS223

7.1 INTRODUCTION223

7.2BASIC CONCEPTS223

7.2.1 Terra nullius223

7.2.2 Intertemporal law226

7.2.3 Critical date227

7.3TITLE TO TERRITORY227

7.3.1 Occupation of terra nullius228

7.3.2 Prescription and acquiescence238

7.3.3 Conquest/annexation241

7.3.4 Cession243

7.3.5 Accretion243

7.3.6Other possible modes of acquisition243

7.3.6.1 Adjudication243

7.3.6.2 Disposition by joint decision244

7.3.6.3 Continuity and contiguity244

7.4 BOUNDARIES244

7.5 RIGHTS OF FOREIGN STATES OVER TERRITORY245

7.6 LOSS OF STATE TERRITORY247

8JURISDICTION249

8.1 INTRODUCTION249

8.2 CIVIL JURISDICTION253

8.3 TERRITORIAL PRINCIPLE254

8.4PROTECTIVE OR SECURITY PRINCIPLE275

8.4.1 The effects doctrine276

8.5 NATIONALITY PRINCIPLE278

8.6 PASSIVE PERSONALITY279

8.7 UNIVERSALITY PRINCIPLE280

8.8 DOUBLE JEOPARDY282

8.9 EXTRADITION283

8.10 ASYLUM283

8.11 ILLEGAL SEIZURE OF OFFENDERS285

8.12 THE WRONGFUL EXERCISE OF JURIDICTION286

9IMMUNITIES FROM NATIONAL JURISDICTION287

9.1 INTRODUCTION287

9.2STATE IMMUNITY287

9.2.1 The basis of state immunity287

9.2.2 Absolute and restrictive immunity289

9.2.3 The British position289

9.2.4 The current legal position302

9.3 FOREIGN ARMED FORCES303

9.4DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY303

9.4.1 The basis of diplomatic immunity315

9.4.2 The international law on diplomatic relations316

9.4.3 The diplomatic mission316

9.4.4 Diplomatic personnel317

9.4.5 Diplomatic communications318

9.5 CONSULAR IMMUNITY318

9.6 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS319

10STATE RESPONSIBILITY321

10.1 INTRODUCTION321

10.2 THE DRAFT ARTICLES ON STATE RESPONSIBILITY321

10.3FAULT337

10.3.1 Objective or risk responsibility338

10.3.2 Subjective responsibility338

10.4IMPUTABILITY340

10.4.1 Organs of the state340

10.4.2 Individuals341

10.4.3 Ultra Vires acts343

10.4.4 Insurrectionaries344

10.5INTERNATIONAL CRIMES345

10.5.1 The International Law Commission and the Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind346

10.5.2 An international criminal court355

10.6STATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE TREATMENT OF ALIENS355

10.6.1 Standard of treatment355

10.7 LOCUS STANDI AND THE RIGHT TO BRING CLAIMS356

10.8NATIONALITY OF CLAIMS357

10.8.1 Individuals357

10.8.2 Corporations and their shareholders359

10.9 EXHAUSTION OF LOCAL REMEDIES360

10.10 DEFENCES AND JUSTIFICATIONS361

10.11 REMEDIES FOR INTERNATIONAL WRONGS367

11LAW OF THE SEA369

11.1 INTRODUCTION369

11.2BASELINES371

11.2.1 Straight baselines371

11.2.2 Bays373

11.2.3 River mouths375

11.2.4 Harbour works375

11.2.5 Low-tide elevations375

11.2.6 Islands375

11.2.7 Reefs376

11.2.8 Archipelagos377

11.3INTERNAL WATERS377

11.3.1 Rights of access to ports and other internal waters378

11.3.2 Exercise of jurisdiction over foreign ships in internal waters378

11.3.3 Archipelagic waters379

11.4TERRITORIAL SEA379

11.4.1 The breadth of the territorial sea379

11.4.2 Delimitation of maritime boundaries380

11.4.3 The right of innocent passage380

11.4.4 The right to deny and suspend passage381

11.4.5 Straits381

11.5THE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE(EEZ)AND THE CONTIGUOUS ZONE382

11.5.1 Rights within the EEZ383

11.6THE CONTINENTAL SHELF383

11.6.1 Continental shelf rights384

11.6.2 Delimitation of the continental shelf and the EEZ384

11.7HIGH SEAS386

11.7.1 Freedom of the high seas386

11.7.2Jurisdiction on the high seas387

11.7.2.1 The flagging of ships387

11.7.2.2 Collisions at sea388

11.7.2.3 Exceptions to the flag state's exclusive jurisdiction388

11.7.3 Hot pursuit389

11.7.4 Safety of shipping390

11.8INTERNATIONAL SEA BED390

11.8.1 The LOSC regime391

12AIR AND SPACE LAW483

12.1 AIRSPACE483

12.2 THE CHICAGO CONVENTION483

12.3 UNAUTHORISED AERIAL INTRUSION486

12.4JURISDICTION OVER AIRCRAFT486

12.4.1 Threats to aviation security486

12.5 THE LIABILITY OF AIRLINE COMPANIES499

12.6 OUTER SPACE499

13THE PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES525

13.1 INTRODUCTION525

13.2 NEGOTIATION AND CONSULTATION536

13.3 GOOD OFFICES536

13.4 MEDIATION537

13.5 CONCILIATION538

13.6 INQUIRY541

13.7 ARBITRATION541

13.8JUDICIAL SETTLEMENT543

13.8.1 The World Court543

13.8.2 Composition of the Court555

13.8.3Jurisdiction of the Court557

13.8.3.1 Jurisdiction in contentious cases557

13.8.3.2 Incidental jurisdiction559

13.8.3.3 Advisory opinions562

13.8.4 Law applied by the Court567

13.8.5 Effect of judgment567

13.8.6 Non-appearance568

13.9 SETTLEMENT WITHIN THE UN568

14THE USE OF FORCE591

14.1 INTRODUCTION591

14.2 THE LAW BEFORE 1945591

14.3 THE LAW AFTER 1945:ARTICLE 2(4)OF THE UN CHARTER595

14.4 THE DEFINITION OF FORCE600

14.5THE JUSTIFICATIONS FOR THE UNILATERAL USE OF FORCE601

14.5.1 Self-defence601

14.5.2 Invitation and civil wars606

14.5.3 Protection of nationals and property abroad609

14.5.4 Humanitarian intervention611

14.5.5 Self-determination612

14.6COLLECTIVE USE OF FORCE613

14.6.1 The United Nations-a brief introduction613

14.6.2 The UN and collective use of force-the Security Council614

14.6.3Enforcement action under Chapter VII616

14.6.3.1 Korea 1950616

14.6.3.2 Rhodesia 1965617

14.6.3.3 Iraq617

14.6.3.4 Somalia,Bosnia and Haiti618

14.6.4 Peace-keeping actions621

14.6.5 The General Assembly's role622

14.6.6 Regional organisations623

15THE REGULATION OF ARMED CONFLICT625

15.1 INTRODUCTION625

15.2 THE SOURCES OF THE LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT626

15.3 APPLICATION OF THE LAW:INTERNATIONAL AND NON-INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICTS627

15.4 EFFECT OF OUTBREAKS OF WAR AND ARMED CONFLICTS628

15.5RULES ON BELLIGERENCE628

15.5.1Restrictions on weapons628

15.5.1.1 Conventional weapons630

15.5.1.2 Weapons of mass destruction640

15.5.1.3 Biological and chemical weapons667

15.5.1.4 Environmental weapons668

15.5.2 Restrictions on methods of warfare669

15.5.3Humanitarian rules671

15.5.3.1 Treatment of civilians671

15.5.3.2 Specially protected groups672

15.6 RESPONSIBILITY AND ENFORCEMENT673

16HUMAN RIGHTS679

16.1 INTRODUCTION679

16.2THE SOURCES OF THE LAW682

16.2.1 General international agreements682

16.2.2 Specialised international agreements720

16.2.3Regional agreements721

16.2.3.1 European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950721

16.2.3.2 Other regional agreements722

16.2.4 Customary rules722

16.3THIRD GENERATION HUMAN RIGHTS723

16.3.1 The right to self-determination724

16.4ENFORCEMENT728

16.4.1 UN mechanisms729

16.4.2 European mechanisms730

17ECONOMIC RELATIONS733

17.1INTRODUCTION733

17.1.1 The nature of international economic law and its definition734

17.2 THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC LAW740

17.3FREE TRADE AND THE WTO741

17.3.1 Commitment to most-favoured-nation trade757

17.3.2 Reduction of tariff barriers757

17.3.3 Non-discrimination758

17.3.4 Import quotas758

17.3.5 Anti-dumping758

17.3.6 Export subsidies759

17.4FINANCIAL STABILITY759

17.4.1 The International Monetary Fund759

17.4.2 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development760

17.5 DEVELOPMENT761

17.6 EXPROPRIATION OF FOREIGN-OWNED PROPERTY786

18ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION791

18.1 INTRODUCTION791

18.2 SOURCES793

18.3 THE STOCKHOLM CONFERENCE795

18.4 THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT800

18.5 THE 1992 EARTH SUMMIT804

18.6GENERAL PRINCIPLES808

18.6.1 The duty to prevent,reduce and control environmental harm809

18.6.2 Consultation,co-operation and communication810

18.6.3 The polluter pays principle810

18.7POLLUTION810

18.7.1 Atmospheric pollution811

18.7.2 Marine pollution819

18.7.3 Nuclear energy833

18.8CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES833

18.8.1 Conservation of migratory and land-based species837

18.8.2 Conservation of marine resources851

18.8.3 Antarctica851

18.9 A RIGHT TO A DECENT ENVIRONMENT852

APPENDIX-UNITED NATIONS MEMBER STATES853

Index861