《PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW SECOND EDITION》

1INTRODUCTION1

1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT1

1.2THE NATURE OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW2

1.2.1 The traditional view3

1.2.2 The modern view4

1.2.3 Contemporary theories5

1.3 IS INTERNATIONAL LAW REALLY LAW?6

1.4THE ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW8

1.4.1 The United Nations8

1.4.2 Judicial enforcement9

1.4.3 Loss of legal rights and privileges9

1.4.4 Self-help9

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 111

2THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW15

2.1 INTRODUCTION15

2.2ARTICLE 38 OF THE STATUTE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE16

2.2.1 Treaties17

2.3CUSTOM18

2.3.1 Definitions of international custom18

2.4THE MATERIAL ELEMENT20

2.4.1 State practice20

2.4.2 The extent of the practice23

2.4.3 The practice of dissenting states and persistent objectors24

2.4.4 Duration of practice25

2.5THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ELEMENT26

2.5.1 Treaties as evidence of customary law26

2.6GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LAW27

2.6.1 Some examples29

2.6.2 Good faith30

2.6.3 Equity30

2.7 JUDICIAL DECISIONS31

2.8 THE TEACHINGS OF THE MOST HIGHLY QUALIFIED PUBLICISTS OF THE VARIOUS NATIONS31

2.9OTHER POSSIBLE SOURCES32

2.9.1 Resolutions of international organisations33

2.9.2 Specialised agencies of the UN36

2.9.3 Resolutions of regional organisations36

2.9.4 The International Law Commission and codification36

2.9.5 'Soft law'37

2.9.6 Jus cogens or peremptory norms38

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 241

3THE LAW OF TREATIES43

3.1 INTRODUCTION43

3.2DEFINITIONS43

3.2.1 An expression of concurring wills44

3.2.2 Concurring wills attributable to two or more parties45

3.2.3 Subjects of international law46

3.2.4 An intention to produce legal effects47

3.2.5 Legal effects under public international law47

3.2.6 Designation47

3.3CONCLUSION AND ENTRY INTO FORCE OF TREATIES48

3.3.1 Accrediting of negotiators48

3.3.2 Negotiation and adoption49

3.3.3 Authentication,signature and exchange49

3.3.4 Effect of signature49

3.3.5 Ratification50

3.3.6 Accessions and adhesions51

3.3.7 Entry into force51

3.3.8 Registration and publication51

3.4RESERVATIONS52

3.4.1 Definitions52

3.4.2 Validity of reservations53

3.5APPLICATION OF TREATIES56

3.5.1 Non-retroactivity57

3.5.2 Territorial application57

3.5.3 Successive treaties57

3.5.4 Treaties and third parties58

3.6 AMENDMENT AND MODIFICATION58

3.7TREATY INTERPRETATION59

3.7.1 Aims and goals of interpretation59

3.7.2Section 3 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 196960

3.7.2.1 Good faith60

3.7.2.2 Ordinary meaning60

3.7.2.3 Special meaning61

3.7.2.4 The context,object and purpose61

3.7.2.5 Supplementary means of interpretation61

3.8 MULTILINGUAL TREATIES62

3.9VALIDITY OF TREATIES62

3.9.1 Non-compliance with municipal law requirements62

3.9.2 Error63

3.9.3 Fraud and corruption63

3.9.4 Coercion63

3.9.5 Unequal treaties64

3.9.6 Jus cogens65

3.9.7 The effect of invalidity65

3.10TERMINATION OF,SUSPENSION OF AND WITHDRAWAL FROM TREATIES66

3.10.1 By consent66

3.10.2 Material breach66

3.10.3 Supervening impossibility of performance67

3.10.4 Fundamental change of circumstances67

3.10.5 Other possible grounds68

3.10.6 The effect of termination or suspension68

3.11 DISPUTE SETTLEMENT69

3.12 STATE SUCCESSION69

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 373

4THE SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THEIR RECOGNITION75

4.1 INTRODUCTION75

4.2INDEPENDENT STATES76

4.2.1 Population and territory76

4.2.2 Government77

4.2.3 Independence78

4.2.4Permitted derogations79

4.2.4.1 Constitutional restrictions upon freedom of action79

4.2.4.2 Treaty obligations80

4.2.4.3 The existence of foreign military bases80

4.2.4.4 Membership of international organisations81

4.2.5 Permanence81

4.2.6 Legality81

4.2.7 Self-determination81

4.2.8 States created by illegal use of force83

4.2.9 Extinction of statehood84

4.3NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES85

4.3.1 Colonies85

4.3.2 Protectorates86

4.3.3 Mandates and trust territories87

4.4INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS88

4.4.1 The extent of personality89

4.4.2 The relationship between States and international organisations91

4.5THE UNITED NATIONS91

4.5.1 Purposes and principles92

4.5.2 Membership92

4.5.3The organs of the UN93

4.5.3.1 The General Assembly93

4.5.3.2 The Security Council94

4.5.3.3 The Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC)94

4.5.3.4 The Trusteeship Council94

4.5.3.5 The Secretariat95

4.5.3.6 The International Court of Justice95

4.6 INDIVIDUALS95

4.7RECOGNITION95

4.7.1The theoretical issue96

4.7.1.1 The constitutive theory96

4.7.1.2 The declaratory theory97

4.7.2 Non-recognition98

4.7.3 Recognition of governments99

4.7.4 De facto and de jure recognition100

4.7.5 The legal effects of recognition in municipal law:UK practice100

4.7.6 Locus standi101

4.7.7 Effectiveness of legislative and executive acts102

4.7.8 Sovereign immunity104

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4105

5TERRITORIAL RIGHTS109

5.1 INTRODUCTION109

5.2BASIC CONCEPTS110

5.2.1 Terra nullius and res communis110

5.2.2 Intertemporal law110

5.2.3 Critical date111

5.3TITLE TO TERRITORY111

5.3.1 Occupation of terra nullius112

5.3.2 Prescription114

5.3.3 Conquest and annexation116

5.3.4 Cession117

5.3.5 Accretion118

5.3.6Other possible modes of acquisition118

5.3.6.1 Adjudication118

5.3.6.2 Disposition by joint decision118

5.3.6.3 Continuity and contiguity119

5.4 BOUNDARIES119

5.5 RIGHTS OF FOREIGN STATES OVER TERRITORY120

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5123

6JURISDICTION125

6.1 INTRODUCTION125

6.2 CIVIL JURISDICTION127

6.3 TERRITORIAL PRINCIPLE127

6.4PROTECTIVE OR SECURITY PRINCIPLE129

6.4.1 The effects doctrine130

6.5 NATIONALITY PRINCIPLE132

6.6 PASSIVE PERSONALITY PRINCIPLE133

6.7UNIVERSALITY PRINCIPLE135

6.7.1 International criminal jurisdiction137

6.8 DOUBLE JEOPARDY138

6.9 EXTRADITION138

6.10 ASYLUM139

6.11 ILLEGAL SEIZURE OF OFFENDERS140

6.12 THE WRONGFUL EXERCISE OF JURISDICTION141

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6143

7IMMUNITIES FROM NATIONAL JURISDICTION145

7.1 INTRODUCTION145

7.2STATE IMMUNITY145

7.2.1 The basis of State immunity146

7.2.2 Absolute and restrictive immunity147

7.2.3 The British position148

7.2.4 The current legal position150

7.3 FOREIGN ARMED FORCES151

7.4DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY151

7.4.1The basis of diplomatic immunity151

7.4.1.1 Personal representation152

7.4.1.2 Extra-territoriality152

7.4.1.3 Functional necessity152

7.4.2 The international law on diplomatic relations152

7.4.3 The diplomatic mission153

7.4.4 Diplomatic personnel154

7.4.5 Diplomatic communications155

7.5 CONSULAR IMMUNITY156

7.6 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS156

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7159

8STATE RESPONSIBILITY161

8.1 INTRODUCTION161

8.2FAULT162

8.2.1 Objective or risk responsibility162

8.2.2 Subjective responsibility163

8.3IMPUTABILITY165

8.3.1 Organs of the state165

8.3.2 Individuals166

8.3.3 Ultra vires acts168

8.3.4 Insurrectionaries169

8.4 INTERNATIONAL CRIMES170

8.5STATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE TREATMENT OF ALIENS171

8.5.1 Standard of treatment171

8.6 LOCUS STANDI AND THE RIGHT TO BRING CLAIMS172

8.7NATIONALITY OF CLAIMS173

8.7.1 Individuals173

8.7.2 Corporations and their shareholders175

8.8 EXHAUSTION OF LOCAL REMEDIES176

8.9 DEFENCES AND JUSTIFICATIONS177

8.10 REMEDIES FOR INTERNATIONAL WRONGS178

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 8181

9THE LAW OF THE SEA183

9.1 INTRODUCTION183

9.2BASELINES185

9.2.1 Straight baselines185

9.2.2 Bays187

9.2.3 River mouths188

9.2.4 Harbour works188

9.2.5 Low tide elevations188

9.2.6 Islands189

9.2.7 Reefs189

9.2.8 Archipelagos190

9.3INTERNAL WATERS191

9.3.1 Rights of access to ports and other internal waters191

9.3.2 Exercise of jurisdiction over foreign ships in internal waters192

9.3.3 Archipelagic waters192

9.4TERRITORIAL SEA192

9.4.1 The breadth of the territorial sea193

9.4.2 The right of innocent passage194

9.4.3 The right to deny and suspend passage195

9.4.4 Rights and duties of the coastal State196

9.4.5 Straits196

9.5THE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE(EEZ)AND THE CONTIGUOUS ZONE197

9.5.1 Rights within the EEZ198

9.5.2 Straddling stocks199

9.6THE CONTINENTAL SHELF199

9.6.1 Continental shelf rights200

9.6.2 The status of the Channel Tunnel201

9.7DELIMITATION OF MARITIME ZONES202

9.7.1 Delimitation of the continental shelf and the EEZ202

9.8HIGH SEAS204

9.8.1 Freedom of the high seas204

9.8.2Jurisdiction on the high seas205

9.8.2.1 The flagging of ships205

9.8.2.2 Collisions at sea206

9.8.2.3 Exceptions to the flag State's exclusive jurisdiction206

9.8.3 Hot pursuit208

9.8.4 Safety of shipping208

9.9INTERNATIONAL SEA BED209

9.9.1 The LOSC regime210

9.10 SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES211

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9213

10AIR AND SPACE LAW215

10.1 AIRSPACE215

10.2 THE CHICAGO CONVENTION215

10.3 THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION216

10.4 BILATERAL AGREEMENTS217

10.5 UNAUTHORISED AERIAL INTRUSION218

10.6JURISDICTION OVER AIRCRAFT219

10.6.1 Threats to aviation security219

10.6.2 Lockerbie222

10.7 THE LIABILITY OF AIRLINE COMPANIES223

10.8OUTER SPACE224

10.8.1 Definition224

10.8.2 International Conventions224

10.8.3 Geostationary orbit225

10.8.4 Telecommunication226

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 10227

11PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES229

11.1 INTRODUCTION229

11.2 NEGOTIATION230

11.3 GOOD OFFICES231

11.4 MEDIATION231

11.5 CONCILIATION231

11.6 INQUIRY231

11.7 ARBITRATION232

11.8JUDICIAL SETTLEMENT234

11.8.1 The World Court234

11.8.2 Composition of the court234

11.8.3 Jurisdiction in contentious cases236

11.8.4Incidental jurisdiction239

11.8.4.1 Preliminary objections239

11.8.4.2 Intervention239

11.8.4.3 Interim measures240

11.8.5 Advisory opinions240

11.8.6 Law applied by the court241

11.8.7 Effect of judgment241

11.8.8 Non-appearance241

11.9 SETTLEMENT WITHIN THE UN242

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 11243

12THE USE OF FORCE245

12.1 INTRODUCTION245

12.2 THE LAW BEFORE 1945245

12.3 THE LAW AFTER 1945:ARTICLE 2(4)OF THE UN CHARTER246

12.4 THE DEFINITION OF FORCE247

12.5THE JUSTIFICATIONS FOR THE UNILATERAL USE OF FORCE248

12.5.1 Self-defence248

12.5.2 Invitation and civil wars251

12.5.3 Protection of nationals and property abroad254

12.5.4 Humanitarian intervention256

12.5.5 Self-determination257

12.6COLLECTIVE USE OF FORCE258

12.6.1 The United Nations:a brief introduction258

12.6.2 The UN and collective use of force:the Security Council259

12.6.3Enforcement action under Chapter Ⅶ261

12.6.3.1 Korea 1950261

12.6.3.2 Rhodesia 1965262

12.6.3.3 Iraq 1990262

12.6.3.4 Somalia,Bosnia and Haiti263

12.6.4 Peace keeping actions264

12.6.5 The General Assembly's role264

12.6.6 Regional organisations265

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 12267

13THE REGULATION OF ARMED CONFLICT269

13.1 INTRODUCTION269

13.2 THE SOURCES OF THE LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT270

13.3 APPLICATION OF THE LAW:INTERNATIONAL AND NON-INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICTS270

13.4 EFFECT OF OUTBREAKS OF WAR AND ARMED CONFLICTS272

13.5RULES ON BELLIGERENCE272

13.5.1 Restrictions on weapons272

13.5.2 Conventional weapons273

13.5.3 Weapons of mass destruction274

13.5.4 Biological and chemical weapons275

13.5.5 Environmental weapons276

13.5.6 Restrictions on methods of warfare277

13.5.7Prohibited methods of warfare279

13.5.7.1 No quarter279

13.5.7.2 Starvation279

13.5.7.3 Belligerent reprisals279

13.5.7.4 Perfidy279

13.6HUMANITARIAN RULES280

13.6.1 Treatment of civilians280

13.6.2Specially protected groups280

13.6.2.1 Wounded,sick and shipwrecked281

13.6.2.2 Women281

13.6.2.3 Children under 15281

13.6.2.4 Journalists281

13.6.2.5 Civil defence,medical and religious personnel281

13.6.2.6 Prisoners of war(POWs)281

13.6.2.7 Those living in occupied territories282

13.7RESPONSIBILITY AND ENFORCEMENT282

13.7.1 Events in former Yugoslavia and Rwanda285

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 13287

14HUMAN RIGHTS289

14.1 INTRODUCTION389

14.2THE SOURCES OF THE LAW290

14.2.1 General international agreements290

14.2.2 Specialised international agreements292

14.2.3Regional agreements293

14.2.3.1 European agreements293

14.2.3.2 Other regional agreements294

14.2.4 Customary rules295

14.3THIRD GENERATION HUMAN RIGHTS296

14.3.1 The right to self determination297

14.4ENFORCEMENT299

14.4.1 UN mechanisms299

14.4.2 European mechanisms301

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 14303

15ECONOMIC RELATIONS305

15.1 INTRODUCTION305

15.2 THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC LAW307

15.3FREE TRADE AND THE WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION307

15.3.1 Commitment to most-favoured-nation trade309

15.3.2 Reduction of tariff barriers310

15.3.3 Non-discrimination310

15.3.4 Import quotas310

15.3.5 Anti-dumping311

15.3.6 Export subsidies311

15.4FINANCIAL STABILITY312

15.4.1 The International Monetary Fund312

15.4.2 The International Bank for Reconstructing and Development313

15.5 DEVELOPMENT314

15.6 EXPROPRIATION OF FOREIGN OWNED PROPERTY315

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 15319

16ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION321

16.1 INTRODUCTION321

16.2 THE NATURE OF THE OBLIGATIONS321

16.3 SOURCES322

16.4 THE STOCKHOLM CONFERENCE323

16.5 THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT323

16.6 THE 1992 EARTH SUMMIT325

16.7GENERAL PRINCIPLES326

16.7.1 The duty to prevent,reduce and control environmental harm326

16.7.2 Consultation,co-oporation and communication327

16.7.3 The polluter pays principle327

16.8POLLUTION328

16.8.1 Marine pollution329

16.8.2 Atmospheric pollution330

16.8.3 Nuclear energy331

16.9CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES332

16.9.1 Sustainable development332

16.9.2 Conservation of migratory and land based species333

16.9.3 Conservation of marine resources333

16.9.4 Antarctica334

16.10 A RIGHT TO A DECENT ENVIRONMENT334

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 16337

17THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MUNICIPAL LAW AND INTERNATIONAL LAW339

17.1 INTRODUCTION339

17.2THE THEORETICAL ISSUE339

17.2.1 Monism339

17.2.2 Dualism340

17.2.3 A third way?340

17.3THE PRACTICAL ISSUE341

17.3.1 Municipal law before international tribunals342

17.3.2 International law before municipal tribunals:transformation and incorporation343

17.3.3 Customary international law and British practice343

17.3.4 Treaties and British practice346

17.3.5 The practice of other States348

17.3.6 The relationship between international law and European law349

17.3.7 The relationship between regional international law and universal international law350

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 17351

Further Reading353

Index361