《METEOROLOGY weather ，and methods of forecasting description of meteorological instruments and river》

CHAPTER Ⅰ1

THE AIR1

Meteorology, Air pressure1

Properties of air2

Air constituents3

Insolation5

Atmospheric circulation8

Ocean currents10

CHAPTER Ⅱ14

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS14

Thermometer15

Maximum thermometer19

Minimum thermometer20

Solar radiation thermometer21

Radiometer25

Actinometer26

Barometer28

Aneroid barometer33

Hypsometer34

Dew-point apparatus36

Psychrometer37

Hair hygrometer38

Rain gauge39

Snow gauge39

Percolation gauge40

Anemometer40

Beaufort scale42

Wind vane43

Self-register43

Anemograph, Pluviograph44

Nephoscope45

Sunshine recorder46

Evaporometer47

Electrometer48

River gauge49

Current meter51

CHAPTER Ⅲ52

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE52

Air temperature52

Daily range of temperature54

Temperature range at sea55

Mean temperatures56

Ocean temperature57

Earth temperature58

Maximum temperatures59

Minimum temperatures59

Temperature variability60

Dew, Frost61

Lake climate63

Temperature and height63

Pressure of air64

Diurnal oscillation64

Variation with latitude65

Effect of moon on pressure65

Monthly range67

Annual range67

Distribution of pressure67

January pressure68

July pressure69

CHAPTER Ⅳ70

EVAPORATION, CLOUDS, RAIN, AND SNOW70

Daily change of vapour pressure71

Yearly change of pressure71

Cloud formation72

Cloud classification72

High clouds : Cirrus, Cirro-stratus73

Intermediate clouds : Cirro-cumulus, Cumulo-cirrus, Strato-cirrus74

Lower clouds : Strato-cumulus, Nimbus-cumulus, Cumulo-nimbus, Stratus75

Cloud shadows, Cloud variation76

Fog formation78

Atmospheric electricity81

Rainfall83

Causes of rain85

Distribution of rainfall86

Dry regions88

Rainless regions89

Trade-wind rains89

Rainfall in United States90

Snowfall95

Glaciers97

Sleet, Hail98

Constancy of climate100

Constancy of rainfall101

Constancy of temperature103

CHAPTER Ⅴ105

WINDS, THUNDERSTORMS, AND TORNADOES105

Wind velocity105

Diurnal range of wind velocity106

Daily variation of wind direction107

Land and sea breeze107

Monsoon109

Mountain winds111

F?hn wind113

Chinook, Mistral, Bora, Tramontana, Gregale, Buran114

Purga, Blizzard, Northers, Barber, Pamperos, Southerly Buster, Nor'wester, Scirocco115

La Veche, Leste, Desert winds, Harmattan116

Khamsin, Simoon, Wind roses117

Thunderstorms118

Isobronts119

Lightning, Ball lightning, Fulgurites120

Periodicity of thunderstorms121

Electrical storms122

Cause of lightning122

Cause of thunderstorms125

Tornado126

CHAPTER Ⅵ131

OPTICAL APPEARANCES131

Flattening of sun, Looming up131

Mirage, Dispersion, Rainbows132

Secondary bow, Wind galls, Fog bows, Brocken spectre, Glories, Corona133

Aureole, Halos, Parhelia134

Anthelion, Luminous cross, Blue sky, Red sunsets, Twilight135

Ice-blink, Snow-banners, Aurora136

Magnetic elements138

CHAPTER Ⅶ141

WEATHER-MAPS141

Isobars, Isotherms, Isohyetals, Lows141

Highs, Weather-map, Winds in lows142

Direction of winds around low pressure144

Pressure gradient145

Cyclones147

Movement of cyclone148

Cyclone paths151

Average wind velocity in lows154

Greatest wind velocity in lows155

Table Ⅰ., low-pressure areas with rise and fall156

Table Ⅱ., low-pressure areas and direction of motion157

Table Ⅲ., low-pressure areas and depth of depression158

Table Ⅳ., low-pressure areas and change of pressure at centre159

Table Ⅴ., motion of low pressure in relation to high pressure159

Conclusions in regard to motion of lows160

High pressures161

Tropical cyclones165

Management of ship in cyclone173

CHAPTER Ⅷ178

WEATHER PREDICTIONS178

Basis of predictions178

Estimate of motion of low179

Storm wind and gradients of pressure181

Winds and pressure fall181

Rain and low pressure181

Quantity of rain182

Rain and high pressure182

Secondary low pressure184

Remarks on rain predictions184

Weather-flags186

Spectroscope and rain187

Typical weather-maps and accompanying rain areas187

Cold waves189

Number and area of cold waves190

Intensity of cold waves191

Fall of temperature and gradient192

Place of greatest fall192

Frost predictions194

Long-time predictions195

CHAPTER Ⅸ198

RIVERS AND FLOODS198

Kinds of floods198

Rainfall floods200

River courses202

Different classes of flood streams204

Flood combinations209

Effects of forests210

River records210

Predictions of stages without gauges211

Rainfall and river rise212

River discharge215

CHAPTER Ⅹ218

RIVER-STAGE PREDICTIONS218

Methods of predicting river stages219

Floods at Paris, France221

River-stage predictions for Pittsburg, Pa222

Wheeling, W.Va.; Parkersburg, W.Va; Marietta, Ohio; Cincinnati, Ohio225

Louisville, Ky.; Evansville, Ind.; Mount Vernon, Ind233

Cairo, Ill233

Carthage, Tenn.; Nashville, Tenn.; Eddyville, Ky238

Chattanooga, Tenn.; Decatur, Ala.; Florence, Ala.; Johnsonville, Tenn240

Davenport, Ia.; Omaha, Neb.; Kansas City, Mo.; Jefferson City, Mo241

St.Louis, Mo243

Memphis, Tenn.; Helena, Ark.; Arkansas City, Ark.; Greenville, Miss261

Vicksburg, Miss262

Mississippi River, comparative high-water stages266