《waveforms 19》

CHAP.1. INTRODUCTION1

SCOPE AND VIEWPOINT1

1.1. Viewpoint1

1.2. Relation to Preceding Books3

1.3. Content of This Volume4

1.4. Relation to the Succeeding Volumes5

1.5. Method of Treatment6

1.6. Uses of Waveforms7

BASIC CONCEPTS AND THE METHOD OF APPROACH8

1.7. Basic Concepts8

1.8. Method of Approach15

CHAP. 2. OPERATIONS ON WAVEFORMS WITH LINEAR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS17

2.1. Linear Circuit Elements17

2.2. Potential Division and Addition18

2.3. Waveform Shaping by Passive Elements19

2.4. Linear Amplifiers Using Negative Feedback24

2.5. Plate-to-grid Feedback Amplifiers27

2.6. Linear Shaping Amplifiers, Capacitance Feedback31

2.7. The Use of Operational Notation37

CHAP. 3. OPERATIONS WITH NONLINEAR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS40

INTRODUCTION40

3.1. Ideal Elements41

3.2. Basic Operations42

OPERATIONS WITH NONLINEAR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS43

3.3. Initiation of Waveforms43

3.4. Amplitude Selection44

3.5. Amplitude Comparison45

3.6. Time Selection47

3.7. Amplitude Modulation49

3.8. Time Modulation52

3.9. Phase Modulation53

3.10. Amplitude Demodulation53

3.11. Level-setting54

3.12. Time Demodulation55

3.13. Amplitude Discrimination57

CHARACTERISTICS OF NONLINEAR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS58

3.14. High-vacuum Diode58

3.15. Contact Rectifiers68

3.16. Photocells72

3.17. Cutoff in Grid Tubes73

3.18. Plate-voltage vs. Plate-current Nonlinearities77

3.19. Grid-current Nonlinearities80

3.20. Composite Characteristics81

3.21. Gas-filled Tubes82

3.22. Feedback Circuits85

3.23. Multiple Circuits86

3.24. Multivariable Elements87

3.25. Curved Characteristics91

3.26. Displacement Elements92

3.27. More Complete Descriptions of Physical Elements92

CHAP. 4. SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM GENERATORS101

CONTINUOUS WAVES101

4.1. General Properties101

4.2. Resonant-circuit Oscillators104

4.3. Crystal Oscillators106

4.4. Phase-shift Oscillators110

4.5. Bridge Oscillators115

4.6. Negative-resistance Oscillators123

4.7. Beat-frequency Oscillators124

4.8. Electromechanical Sine-wave Generators125

STABILIZATION OF OSCILLATORS126

4.9. Amplitude Stabilization126

4.10. Frequency Stabilization128

POLYPHASE SINUSOIDS131

4.11. Generation of Circular Sweep for Cathode-ray Tube132

4.12. Resistance-reactance Phase Shifters136

PULSED OSCILLATIONS140

4.13. Ringing Circuit141

4.14. Pulsed Hartley Oscillator142

4.15. Pulsed Crystal Oscillators145

PULSED POLYPHASE SINUSOIDS148

4.16. RC-Feedback Circuit150

4.17. Phase-splitting Amplifier154

4.18. Pulsed Oscillations for Use with Synchros156

CHAP.5. GENERATION OF FAST WAVEFORMS159

INTRODUCTION159

5.1. Methods and Principles in the Generation of Fast Waveforms159

5.2. Applications161

5.3. Other Practical Design Considerations162

MULTIVIBRATORS163

5.4. Bistable Multivibrators164

5.5. Monostable Multivibrators166

5.6. Astable Multivibrators171

5.7. Analysis of the Transition between States174

5.8. Analysis of the Timing Process177

5.9. Obtaining Fast Transition179

5.10. Monostable Circuits for Very Short Pulses179

5.11. Obtaining Fast Recovery—Highly Unsymmetrical Astable Multi-vibrators183

5.12. Triggering and Synchronization187

5.13. Stabilizing the Duration of a Quasi-stable State190

5.14. Varying the Duration of a Quasi-stable State194

PHANTASTRON-TYPE CIRCUITS195

5.15. Introduction: Miller Sweep Generation195

5.16. The Screen-coupled Phantastron197

5.17. The Sanatron and Sanaphant200

5.18. The Cathode-coupled Phantastron203

CHAP. 6. BLOCKING OSCILLATORS AND DELAY-LINE PULSE GEN-ERATORS205

6.1. Blocking Oscillators205

PULSE WAVEFORMS211

6.2. The Transformer211

6.3. The Tube213

TRIGGERING METHODS218

6.4. Introduction218

RECOVERY TIME223

6.5. General Considerations223

6.6. Frequency Division225

6.7. Random Variations in PRF225

PRACTICAL CIRCUITS226

6.8. General Considerations226

6.9. Plate-to-grid Feedback226

6.10. Some Applications of Blocking Oscillators233

6.11. Delay-line Pulse Generators238

6.12. Use of a Delay Line in Terminating a Step Function238

6.13. Feedback Networks242

6.14. Delay Line Used to Terminate Regenerative Action245

6.15. Duplication of Pulses by Means of Delay Lines247

CHAP. 7. GENERATION OF TRIANGULAR WAVEFORMS254

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS254

7.1. Definition and Types254

7.2. Characteristics of Triangular Waveforms255

7.3. Uses of Triangular Waveforms257

7.4. Methods of Generating Triangular Waveforms257

DETAILED DISCUSSIONS OF METHODS OF GENERATION259

7.5. Condenser Charging through Resistor259

Use of High Variational Impedance261

7.6. Inductance in Series with Resistor261

7.7. Vacuum-tube Variational Impedances264

Circuits Involving Positive and Negative Feedback266

7.8. Use of the Cathode Follower267

7.9. A Cathode-follower Circuit with a Compensating Network274

Circuits Involving Negative Feedback278

7.10. General Theory and Classification278

7.11. Single-stage Amplifier Circuits, Externally Gated280

7.12. Multistage Amplifier Circuits, Externally Gated284

7.13. Internally Gated Circuits285

CHAP. 8. GENERATION OF SPECIAL WAVEFORMS289

8.1. Introduction289

8.2. Special Triangles and Rectangles290

8.3. Trapezoids297

8.4. Exponentials297

8.5. Hyperbolas301

8.6. Hyperbolic Waveforms by Algebraic Operations; by Charge Compensation302

8.7. Hyperbolic Waveforms by Summing Exponentials304

8.8. Parabolas305

8.9. Higher Powers and Series Approximations312

8.10. The Sums of Sinusoids313

8.11. Pulse Shaping313

8.12. Approximation of Curves by Segments315

SPECIAL CURRENT WAVEFORMS317

Introduction317

8.13. Derivation of a Current Waveform from a Voltage Waveform317

8.14. Current-waveform Generators318

8.15. Level-setting of Current Waveforms321

CHAP. 9. AMPLITUDE, SELECTION, COMPARISON AND DISCRIMI-NATION325

9.1. Introduction325

9.2. Amplitude Selection325

9.3. Diode Selectors328

9.4. Germanium-crystal Selectors331

9.5. Triode and Pentode Selectors331

9.6. Compensation of Cathode Drifts333

9.7. Quasi Selectors334

9.8. Amplitude Comparison335

9.9. Amplifiers for Comparators335

9.10. Simple Diode Comparator338

9.11. Grid-controlled Comparators339

9.12. Multivibrator Comparators341

9.13. Blocking-oscillator Comparator342

9.14. The Multiar343

9.15. Other Forms of the Multiar344

9.16. Two-way Comparators348

9.17. Sine-wave Comparators348

9.18. Sine-wave Peak Comparison350

9.19. Sine-wave Zero Comparison352

9.20. Sine-wave-comparator Amplifiers355

9.21. Amplitude Discrimination357

9.22. Direct-coupled Discriminators358

9.23. Modulated-carrier-amplitude Discriminators362

CHAP. 10. TIME SELECTION364

10.1. Introduction364

10.2. Amplitude Selectors365

10.3. Switch Circuits370

10.4. Multiple-coincidence Circuits381

10.5. Adjacent Time Selectors384

10.6. Cathode-ray-tube Displays387

CHAP. 11. ELECTRICAL AMPLITUDE MODULATION389

11.1. Introduction389

11.2. Signal-controlled Amplitude Selectors390

11.3. Carrier-controlled Switches396

11.4. Balanced Triodes, Tetrodes, and Multigrid Tubes413

11.5. Variable-capacitance Modulators418

11.6. Negative-feedback Diode Modulator420

11.7. Modulation with Nonlinear Magnetic Circuits421

11.8. Summary425

CHAP. 12. ELECTROMECHANICAL MODULATORS427

12.1. Introduction427

POTENTIOMETERS428

12.2. Fundamental Characteristics428

12.3. Linear Potentiometers431

12.4. Sinusoidal Potentiometers434

12.5. Nonlinear Potentiometers436

12.6. Synchros439

12.7. Use with Sinusoidal Carriers444

12.8. Complex-voltage-waveform Modulation—The Problem447

12.9. Complex-current-waveform Modulation450

12.10. Variable Condensers455

12.11. Use with Sinusoidal Carrier457

12.12. Complex-waveform Modulation461

12.13. Variacs463

12.14. Photomechanical Modulators463

CHAP. 13. TIME MODULATION466

13.1. Introductory Remarks466

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF T-M WAVEFORMS466

13.2. Examples of T-m Waveforms466

13.3. Fundamental T-m Methods467

13.4. Applications469

13.5. Transfer Functions—Linear and Nonlinear470

13.6. Control Signals471

13.7. Errors—General Accuracy Considerations472

VOLTAGE SAWTOOTH METHOD477

13.8. Introduction477

13.9. Representative Circuit. Switching and Comparison Methods477

13.10. Problems with Miller Negative-going Sweeps483

13.11. Slow and Nonlinear Sweeps—Regenerative Pickoffs485

13.12. Internally Gated Circuits486

PHASE-MODULATION METHOD490

13.13. Introduction490

13.14. Phase-modulating Potentiometer491

13.15. Phase-shifting Condensers492

13.16. Synchro Phase-modulators497

STORAGE TUBE METHOD499

13.17. Storage Tubes499

CHAP. 14. AMPLITUDE AND TIME DEMODULATION501

14.1. Introduction501

14.2. Types of Amplitude Demodulation502

14.3. Amplitude Selectors503

14.4. Phase-sensitive Detectors511

14.5. Demodulators Employing Switching513

14.6. Difference Detectors with Constant Output524

14.7. General Considerations in Time Demodulation532

14.8. Simplified Negative-feedback Time Demodulator537

14.9. Mechanical Demodulation by Cathode-ray-tube Display539

14.10. Amplitude Demodulation by Electronic Servomechanisms543

CHAP. 15. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS AND DIVIDERS545

SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS545

15.1. Introduction545

15.2. Harmonic Generation546

15.3. Frequency-selecting Filters548

Frequency Multipliers551

15.4.. Practical Multiplier Circuits551

SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY DIVIDERS556

15.5. Introduction556

15.6. Dividers Using a Time Base559

15.7. Regenerative Dividers560

15.8. Dividers with Regeneration and Modulation562

CHAP. 16. PULSE-RECURRENCE-FREQUENCY DIVISION567

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS567

16.1. Definition567

16.2. Characteristics of Pulse-recurrence-frequency Dividers567

16.3. Uses of Pulse-recurrence-frequency Dividers568

16.4. Methods for Accomplishing Continuous Pulse-recurrence-fre-quency Division569

SOME FUNDAMENTAL CIRCUITS AS CONTINUOUS FREQUENCY DIVIDERS572

16.5. Monostable Multivibrators572

16.6. Astable Multivibrator Dividers575

16.7. Phantastron-type Dividers577

16.8. Blocking Oscillator Dividers582

16.9. Blocking Oscillators in Divider Chains588

16.10. Gas-tube Dividers591

MORE ELABORATE DIVIDER SCHEMES, AND INTERMITTENT-FREQUENCY DIVISION592

16.11. Pulse-selection PRF Dividers592

16.12. Frequency Division Using Resonant Stabilization595

16.13. Divider Chains with Feedback599

16.14. Intermittent Pulse-recurrence-frequency Division600

CHAP. 17. COUNTING602

INTRODUCTION602

17.1. The Problem602

17.2. General Method602

SEQUENCE CIRCUITS604

17.3. Scale-of-two604

17.4. Thyratron Ring Counters612

ENERGY STORAGE COUNTERS614

17.5. General Considerations614

17.6. Storage Circuits615

17.7. Energy-storage Counter Circuits619

17.8. Combination of Counters624

CHAP. 18. MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS ON WAVEFORMS—Ⅰ629

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS629

18.1. General Considerations629

18.2. Linear Passive Networks632

18.3. Addition and Subtraction by Means of Vacuum Tubes640

18.4. Summary647

DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION648

18.5. Methods of Differentiation and Integration608

18.6. Theoretical Approaches654

18.7. Practical Circuits658

CHAP. 19. MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS ON WAVEFORMS—Ⅱ667

19.1. Introduction667

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION668

19.2. Relation of Multiplication to Other Operations668

19.3. Multipliers Using Tube Characteristics669

19.4. Logarithmic Devices670

19.5. Multiplying Devices Using Carrier Waveforms674

SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS678

19.6. Circuits for Producing Squares and Square Roots678

19.7. Squaring Circuits679

19.8. Square-root-extracting Circuits686

19.9. Other Quadratic Elements691

19.10. Testing of Circuits Producing Squares and Square Roots693

CHAP. 20. OSCILLOSCOPIC TECHNIQUES IN WAVEFORM MEASURE-MENT694

20.1. Introduction694

20.2. Oscilloscopes and Meters694

20.3. Amplitude Measurements695

20.4. Time Measurements697

20.5. Waveform Measurements699

20.6. Frequency Measurements702

20.7. Phase Measurements705

20.8. Impedance Measurements706

20.9. Harmonic Distortion in Pulsed Sinusoids706

CHAP. 21. STORAGE TUBES707

INTRODUCTION707

21.1. General Definition of a Storage Tube707

21.2. General Methods, Applications707

21.3. Theory of Storage Action708

21.4. Deflection Modulation713

21.5. Signal-plate Modulation714

21.6. Focus Modulation716

21.7. Frequency-modulated Carrier with Intensity Modulation716

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS USED IN STORAGE-TUBE EXPERIMENTS717

21.8. Intensity Modulation Tests717

21.9. Deflection Modulation Tests722

20.10. Storage-tube Synchronizing Devices727

21.11. Storage-tube Time Demodulator728

CHAP.22. ELECTRICAL DELAY LINES730

22.1. Introduction730

THEORY OF ELECTRICAL DELAY LINES731

22.2. Propagation Function and Characteristic-impedance Function731

Response of Networks with Particular γ and Z0 Functions732

22.3. Ideal Transmission Network and Distortion732

22.4. Amplitude Distortion733

22.5. Phase Distortion735

22.6. Amplitude and Phase Distortion739

22.7. Reflection742

TYPES OF DELAY LINES742

22.8. Lumped-constant Lines743

22.9. Distributed-constant Lines745

22.10. Correction Methods746

USES OF DELAY LINES747

22.11. Synchronization and Generation of Waveforms747

22.12. High-impedance Cable748

MEASUREMENT OF PROPERTIES OF DELAY LINES749

22.13. Attenuation Function γ1749

22.14. Phase Function γ2749

22.15. Characteristic Impedance750

CHAP. 23. SUPERSONIC DELAY DEVICE751

23.1. Introduction751

THEORY OF SUPERSONIC DELAY DEVICE752

23.2. The Quartz Crystal as an Electromechanical Transducer752

23.3. Acoustical Media755

23.4. Radiation and Propagation757

23.5. Some Special Cases of Transducer Equivalent Circuits and Asso-ciated Electrical Circuits759

SOME EXAMPLES OF DELAY LINES752

23.6. “Trigger” Delays762

23.7. Delay Lines Providing Faithful Reproduction763

BIBLIOGRAPHY764

APPENDIX A: Negative-capacity Amplifier767

APPENDIX B: Cathode-compensated Amplifier771

GLOSSARY775

INDEX777