《Sedimentary Rocks》

1. INTRODUCTION1

QUANTITY AND KINDS OF SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS1

Relative Importance of Sediments1

Total Volume of Sediment2

Relative Abundance of the Common Sediments3

MAJOR CLASSES OF SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS5

THE STUDY OF SEDIMENTS7

2. TEXTURES8

INTRODUCTION8

PARTICLE SIZE OF CLASTIC ROCKS9

Concept of "Size"9

Descriptive Size Terms11

Grade Scales15

Size Frequency Distributions and Graphic Representation19

HISTOGRAMS20

FREQUENCY CURVES21

CUMULATIVE CURVES22

Statistical Parameters of Frequency Distributions22

Textural Classification of Clastic Sediments and Naming of Aggregates26

Interpretation of Size Analyses30

PURPOSES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SIZE ANALYSES30

NATURE OF THE FREQUENCY CURVE34

POLYMODAL DISTRIBUTIONS39

RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF THE SIZE GRADES41

SHAPE AND ROUNDNESS OF CLASTIC GRAINS46

Shape46

Roundness49

Evaluation and Geologic Significance of Roundness and Shape53

SURFACE TEXTURES OF CLASTIC GRAINS55

FABRIC AND PACKING58

Definitions58

Fabric59

FABRIC ANALYSES59

FABRIC OF GRAVELS AND CONGLOMERATES62

FABRIC OF SANDSTONES64

FABRIC OF CLAY, SHALE, AND OTHER DEPOSITS65

Packing65

POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY67

Porosity67

Permeability69

TEXTURES OF CHEMICAL (ENDOGENETIC )SEDIMENTS72

Crystalline Texture72

Crystalloblastic Textures72

Colloform Textures74

Oolites and Related Structures75

3.COMPOSITION81

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION81

MINERALOGY OF THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS84

Group A:Stable Primary Minerals89

QUARTZ90

FELDSPAR91

MICAS96

MINOR ACCESSORY MINERALS("HEAVY MINERALS")96

ROCK FRAGMENTS99

Group B: Stable Secondary Minerals100

CLAY MINERALS100

OXIDES OF IRON AND ALUMINA106

Group C: Chemically Precipitated Minerals107

CARBONATE SERIES107

Calcite108

Aragonite108

Dolomite109

Ankerite109

Siderite109

SILICA GROUP109

SILICATES112

Chamosite113

Glauconite113

Other Iron-Bearing Silicates114

PHOSPHATES115

SULFIDES115

SULFATES116

HALIDES116

Group D: Volcanic Debris116

Group E: Organic Matter117

RADIOACTIVITY118

4. STRUCTURES120

INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION120

PRIMARY OR MECHANICAL STRUCTURES121

Bedding121

DEFINITIONS121

CLASSIFICATION124

CURRENT BEDDING127

Laminations127

Ripple Mark129

Incline Bedding132

Torrential Bedding134

GRADED BEDDING134

THE SEDIMENTATION UNIT AND ITS RELATION TO OTHER PROPERTIES139

Special Features of Bedding Planes143

MUD CRACKS143

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS AND STRUCTURES144

Bedding of Nonclastic Rocks144

Contemporaneous Deformation145

Unconformities and Diastems146

Armored Mud Balls, Clay Galls, and Related Structures146

DEFINITIONS146

MUD BALLS146

CLAY GALLS148

SECONDARY ("CHEMICAL") STRUCTURES149

Accretionary Structures149

DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATION149

NODULES149

SPHERULITES AND ROSETTES150

CONCRETIONS (RESTRICTED)151

GEODES151

CONCHILITES153

SEPTARIA154

CONTRACTION SPHERIODS155

Cone-In-Cone155

Stylolites156

Crystal Molds157

Joints, Veins, and Dikes157

ORGANIC STRUCTURES (FOSSILS)158

Definition158

Mode of Preservation159

The Inorganic Composition of Marine Invertebrates161

Organisms as Rock Builders162

Petrology of Fossils163

CALCAREOUS ALGAE163

CALCAREOUS FORAMINIFERA164

CORALS164

ECHINODERMS164

BRYOZOA165

BRACHIOPODS165

MOLLUSCS165

Organisms as Documents of Milieu165

Fossils and Geochronology167

5. COLOR169

INTRODUCTION169

SIGNIFICANCE OF COLOR170

Red Beds170

Organic Matter and the Color of Sediments175

6. CLASSIFICATION177

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE177

GRABAU'S CLASSIFICATION180

Endogenetic(Chemical)Rocks180

Exogenetic(Clastic)Rocks182

Critique of Grabau's Classification184

KRYNINE'S CLASSIFICATION185

GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF COMPOSITION187

THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTS191

The Clastic Sediments192

The Chemical Sediments193

The Epigenic Sediments193

7. CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS195

INTRODUCTION195

Definitions195

Classification196

TEXTURES OF GRAVELS AND CONGLOMERATES197

COMPOSITION OF CONGLOMERATES AND GRAVELS203

PSEUDOCONGLOMERATES207

EPICLASTIC CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS207

Oligomictic Conglomerates207

Polymictic Conglomerates208

Intraformational Conglomerates and Breccias210

CATACLASTIC CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS211

Till and Tillite212

Tectonic Conglomerates and Breccias223

PYROCLASTIC CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS224

8. SANDSTONES226

INTRODUCTION226

Definitions226

Classification226

Relative Abundance of Principal Types of Arenites229

TEXTURES OF SANDS AND SANDSTONES232

ORTHOQUARTZITE237

Definition237

Composition237

Textures and Structures241

Origin242

GRAYWACKE243

Definition243

Composition245

Textures and Structures251

Origin252

SUBGRAYWACKE255

Definition255

Composition256

Textures and Structures257

Origin and Occurrence257

ARKOSE257

Definition257

Composition258

Textures and Structures258

Occurrence and Associations258

Origin259

PYROCLASTIC ARENITES (TUFFS)261

Description and Classification261

Properties of Tuffs and Tuffaceous Sediments265

Alteration267

Association and Distribution267

9. SHALES AND ARGILLITES269

DEFINITIONS269

COMPOSITION270

Chemical Composition270

Mineral Composition273

TEXTURES AND STRUCTURES274

Grain Size274

Porosity277

Fissility278

Laminations280

CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN281

RESIDUAL CLAYS282

TRANSPORTED CLAYS284

Common Clays and Shales284

Glacial Clays284

MARLS AND OTHER HYBRID CLAYSTONES AND BIOPELITES285

Marls and Calcareous Mudstones286

Clay Ironstones and Ferriferous Mudstones286

Siliceous Shales286

Black Shales (Biopelites)288

10. LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES289

INTRODUCTION289

Definitions289

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS290

Mineral Composition290

Chemical Composition292

Origin and Genetic Classification292

AUTOCHTHONOUS (ACCRETIONARY OR BIOCHEMICAL)LIMESTONE294

Role of Organisms in Limestone Formation295

Biohermal Limestone (Klintite)296

Biostromal (Coquinoid) Limestone299

Pelagic Limestone299

ALLOCHTHONOUS (CLASTIC) LIMESTONES300

Calcarenites and Calcirudites300

Calcilutites307

CHEMICAL LIMESTONE307

THE METASOMATIC CARBONATE ROCKS309

Metasomatism309

Dolomites312

Other Metasomatic Carbonates317

11. NONCLASTIC SEDIMENTS318

INTRODUCTION318

SILICEOUS SEDIMENTS320

Definitions and Classification320

Mineralogy and Occurrence of Sedimentary Chemical Silica321

Petrography of the Cherts323

Origin of Chert328

Siliceous Earths332

Depth of Water333

IRON-BEARING SEDIMENTS333

Definitions333

Mineralogy and Classification333

Bedded Siderites and Cherts334

Iron-Silicate-Bearing Sediments338

Ferric Oxides and Hydroxide-Bearing Sediments341

Iron-Sulfide Deposits345

THE MANGANESE-BEARING SEDIMENTS347

PHOSPHORITE AND OTHER PHOSPHATIC SEDIMENTS348

Definitions348

Mineralogy and Composition350

Petrology350

Associations and Occurrence352

Origin353

SALINES AND OTHER EVAPORITES (EXCLUDING LIMESTONES)354

Definitions and Classification354

Mineralogy and Composition354

Textures and Structures355

Associations and Occurrence356

Origin of Evaporites358

THE CARBONACEOUS ROCKS362

Introduction362

ORGANIC RESIDUES AND THE CARBON CYCLE362

FORMS OF THE ORGANIC RESIDUES362

The Coal Series365

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION365

COAL NOMENCLATURE366

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COAL369

OCCURRENCE OF COAL370

ORIGIN OF COAL370

Sapropel, Petroleum, and Natural Gas371

12. WEATHERING373

INTRODUCTION373

WEATHERING PRODUCTS374

Textures374

Structures of Residual Deposits376

Composition of Residual Deposits376

THE STABILITY OF ROCK MATERIALS377

Mobility of the Oxides377

Stability of Rock-Forming Minerals380

Indices of Maturity382

RELIEF, CLIMATE, AND THE PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING383

Effects of Relief383

Effects of Climate384

Combined Effects of Relief and Climate385

"FOSSIL" SOILS385

13. TRANSPORTATION387

INTRODUCTION387

ABRASION AND SOLUTION388

Definitions388

Analysis of Abrasion389

Effects of Abrasion on Size396

Effects of Abrasion on Roundness and Sphericity400

SPHERICITY AND SIZE400

ROUNDNESS AND SIZE403

ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY407

ROUNDNESS AND DISTANCE409

SHAPE AND DISTANCE412

Effects of Abrasion on Mineral Composition415

Effects of Abrasion on Surface Textures418

Effects of Solution418

SORTING418

Size and Sorting419

Shape Sorting420

Mineral Composition and Sorting423

SUMMARY AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ABRASION AND SORTING431

14. DEPOSITION435

INTRODUCTION435

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION436

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SEDIMENTATION439

Clastic Sedimentation439

Chemical Sedimentation440

Mixed or Hybrid Sedimentation441

GEOSYNCLINAL FACIES443

POSTOROGENIC TERRESTRIAL PIEDMONT FACIES449

FORELAND FACIES451

Aerobic Phase451

Atypical Foreland Facies456

EUXINIC OR BLACK-SHALE FACIES457

SALINE FACIES459

MIXED SECTIONS460

DEPOSITION IN THE DEEP SEA463

Pelagic Deposits464

CYCLICAL DEPOSITION466

The Major Cycle466

Varved Sedimentation467

GLACIAL VARVES467

NONGLACIAL VARVES469

Cyclothemic Sedimentation470

The Rates of Sedimentation471

15. LITHIFICATION AND DIAGENESIS476

DEFINITIONS476

COMPACTION478

CEMENTATION480

INTRASTRATAL SOLUTION485

AUTHIGENESIS497

Definitions497

Authigenic Quartz and Chalcedony498

Authigenic Carbonates499

Authigenic Feldspar500

Authigenic Micas and Chlorites503

Authigenic Titania504

Authigenic Sulfates505

Authigenic Sulfides505

Tourmaline504

Zircon505

Authigenic Phosphate505

METASOMATISM506

AUTHOR INDEX509

SUBJECT INDEX514