《THE EMERGING SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONL LAW DEVELOPMENTS IN CODIFICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION》

Introduction: Aim and Plan of the Present Enquiry in Light of the Complexity of International Criminal Law1

1. Aim of the Enquiry1

2. The Complexity of International Criminal Law2

3. ILC Work on the Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind and Statute for a Permanent International Criminal Court8

i)The Draft Code 1946 - 19968

ii) The Draft Statute15

4. Plan of the Enquiry26

PART 1: DEVELOPMENTS IN CODIFICATION29

Chapter Ⅰ. Aggression， Threat of Aggression， Intervention and Colonial Domination31

1. Aggression32

i)Prior to the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials32

ii) Nuremberg and Tokyo Charters and Judgments40

iii) Content and Legal Status of the Norms on Aggression Since 1945 and the 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Aggression48

iv) Special Role of the Security Council vis-a-vis Aggression in the 1991 Draft Code51

v) 1996 Draft Code57

2. Threat of Aggression59

i)Background59

ii) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Threat of Aggression61

iii) 1996 Draft Code63

3. Intervention63

i) Prior to the UN Charter64

ii) UN Charter Provisions67

- Articles 2(1) and 2(7): Matters Essentially within Domestic Jurisdiction67

- Right to Resort to Force: Articles 2(4) and 5170

iii) Possible Exceptions to Norms Prohibiting Forcible Intervention72

- Invitation Emanating from the Territorial State72

- Protection of Nationals75

- Forcible Reprisals77

- Considerations of ‘Humanity’， ‘Human Rights’，‘Defense of Democracy’ or ‘Self-Determination’as Grounds for Milita Intervention81

iv) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Intervention88

v) 1996 Draft Code89

4. Colonial Domination and Other Forms of Alien Domination90

i) Background92

ii) Content of the Principle of Self-Determination95

iii) Legal Status of the Principle of Self-Determination101

iv) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Colonial Domination103

v) 1996 Draft Code104

ChapterⅡ. Serious Violations of International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law105

1. Genocide105

i) Background105

ii) Principal Normative Aspects of the Genocide Convention， 1948108

iii) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Genocide115

iv) 1996 Draft Code116

v) The Statutes of the Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals and the Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court117

2. Apartheid119

i) The Apartheid Convention， 1973119

ii) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Apartheid120

iii) 1996 Draft Code123

3. Systematic or Mass Violations of Human Rights124

i)Breadth of Coverage of Article 21 of the 1991 Draft Code124

ii) Lex Lata on Specific Crimes Under Article 21127

- Murder127

- Torture129

- Slavery， Servitude or Forced Labour142

- Persecution on Social， Political， Racial， Religious or Cultural Grounds148

- Deportation or Forcible Transfer of Population151

iii) 1996 Draft Code Provisions on Crimes against Humanity159

4. War Crimes163

i)Background163

ii) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on War Crimes166

iii) 1996 Draft Code170

5. Mass Rape172

i)Background172

ii) Considering Mass Rape as a Crime Independent of ‘Violations of Honour’， ‘Genocide’ and ‘Crimes against Humanity’179

iii) 1996 Draft Code180

Chapter Ⅲ. Mercenary Activity， Terrorism， Crimes against UN Personnel， Drug-Traffiicking and Wilful and Severe Damage to the Natural Environment183

1. Recruitment， Use， Financing and Training of Mercenaries183

i)Background183

ii) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Mercenaries188

iii) 1996 Draft Code190

2. International Terrorism191

i)Background191

ii)International Legal Response relative to Terrorist Acts Committed in Peace-Time195

- Multilateral Conventions195

- General Assembly Resolutions， Security Council Action and the Lockerbie Case197

iii) International Legal Response relative to Terrorist Acts Committed in Situations of Armed Conflict198

iv) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Terrorism200

v) 1996 Draft Code201

3. Crimes against United Nations and Associated Personnel203

4. Illicit Traffiic in Narcotic Drugs206

i) Background206

- Opium， Morphine and Heroine206

- Coca， Cocaine and Crack209

ii) International Legal Response relative to the Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs212

iii) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Illicit Drug-Traffiicking217

iv) 1996 Draft Code218

5. Wilful and Severe Damage to the Natural Environment219

i) Background219

ii) 1991 Draft Code Provisions on Environmental Damage224

iii) 1996 Draft Code226

PART 2: DEVELOPMENTS IN IMPLEMENTATION227

Chapter Ⅳ. Advent of Normative Hierarchy in International Law and its Relation to Individual Criminal Responsibility229

1. Jus Cogens229

2. Obligations Erga Omnes234

3. Concept of ‘International Crimes of State’239

4. Relation of Normative Hierarchy in International Law to Individual Criminal Responsibility246

Chapter Ⅴ. Implementation of International Criminal Law through Municipal Jurisdiction249

1. Introduction249

2. Internationally Recognized Bases of Municipal Criminal Jurisdiction including the Doctrine of Universal Jurisdiction250

3. Domestic Efforts to Acquire Custody over the Offender256

i)Limits of Bilateral Extradition Agreements257

ii) State-Sponsored Kidnapping of Criminal Suspects from Foreign Territory262

- The Eichmann Case263

- Alvarez-Machain Case267

iii) Use of Security Council Authority to Ensure the Alleged Offender is Properly Tried Before a Domestic Court: The Lockerbie Case271

Chapter Ⅵ. Implementation of International Criminal Law through International Criminal Tribunals277

1. Introduction277

2. Prior to World War II279

3. Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals281

4. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia284

5. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda290

6. Some Issues concerning the Possible Establishment of a Permanent International Criminal Court in the Light of the Existing Two Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals298

i)The Process of Creating the Ad Hoc Tribunals and Their Relation to the Security Council298

ii) The Problem of Acquiring Custody over the Offender in the Case of International Criminal Tribunals300

- In General300

- A Proposed Set of Procedures to Enhance Compliance with Requests and Orders of an International Criminal Tribunal to Acquire Custody over the Alleged Offender303

iii) Exclusive versus Concurrent Jurisdiction306

7. Fair Trial Standards307

i)Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals310

ii) International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda314

PART 3: FUTURE PROSPECTS321

Chapter Ⅶ.The Emergence of a System of International Criminal Law323

1. Introduction323

2. Purposes of a System of International Criminal Law324

3. The Need for a Permanent International Criminal Court329

4. Stability yet Adaptability332

5. Relative Autonomy from Other Normative Systems333

6. Synthesis335

Annex 1: 1991 ILC Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind341

Annex 2: 1993 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia355

Annex 3: 1994 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda371

Annex 4: 1994 ILC Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court387

Annex 5: 1995 UN General Assembly Resolution A/50/46 Creating a Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court431

Annex 6: 1996 ILC Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind435

Bibliography447

Index479