《FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY》

Chapter 1Fundamental Facts Regarding Chemistry,Matter,and Energy1

Development of Chemistry1

Matter and Energy3

Laws of Conservation of Mass and Energy4

Physical States of Matter6

Kinds of Matter7

Physical and Chemical Changes8

Elements,Compounds,and Mixtures9

Summary12

Chapter 2Chemical Elements and the Atomic Theory14

Metals and Nonmetals15

Occurrence and Physical States16

Chemical Symbols16

Atoms and Atomic Weights18

Atomic Structure19

Atomic Numbers vs.Atomic Weights22

Iso-topes23

Periodic Law and Families of Elements25

Radio-active Elements28

Elements with Atomic Numbers Greater Than 9228

Indivisibility of Atoms29

Chapter 3Compounds,Valence,and Chemical Formulas33

Formation of Chemical Compounds33

Molecules and Molec-ular Weights34

Composition of Compounds35

Elements Which Form Molecules36

Valence36

Valence in Electron Theory39

Covalence41

Formulas42

Quantitative Rela-tions in Formulas45

Chapter 4Chemical Changes and Equations47

Types of Chemical Change47

Interpreting Chemical Equa-tions48

Writing Chemical Equations49

Usefulness of Equa-tions51

What Equations Do Not Tell51

Chapter 5Two Important Elements:Oxygen and Hydrogen53

OXYGEN:KEY TO LIFE AND HEAT53

Occurrence53

Obtaining Pure Oxygen54

Physical Prop-erties56

Chemical Properties56

Oxides57

Oxidation58

Importance of Oxygen to Life59

Oxygen in Air59

Oxygen in Breathing59

Prevention of Oxygen Lack in Body61

Uses63

Ozone66

HYDROGEN-THE LIGHTEST ELEMENT66

Occurrence66

Obtaining Free Hydrogen67

Physical Prop-erties68

Chemical Properties69

Reduction70

Oxidation-Reduction70

Uses70

Chapter 6The Most Important of All Compounds:Water74

Water in Nature74

Water in the Body75

Importance of Physical Properties76

Chemical Properties77

Hydrates and Water of Hydration79

Important Uses81

Impurities in Natural Waters83

Removing Impurities from Water85

Hard Waters90

Water Softeners93

Chapter 7Classification and Naming of Inorganic Compounds96

Inorganic and Organic Compounds96

Significance of Names96

FOUR MAIN TYPES OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS97

Oxides97

Bases98

Characteristic Properties99

Acids101

Acid Radicals102

Replaceable Hydrogen102

Characteristic Properties103

Applications of Properties of Acids(and Bases)104

Salts and Neutralization108

Most Numerous Group of Inorganic Compounds108

Different Classes109

Formation111

Neutralization112

Chapter 8More About Chemical and Energy Changes115

Important Facts about Chemical Changes115

Chemical Af-finity116

Agencies Which Start or Speed Up Chemical Changes116

Reversible Reactions and Chemical Equilibrium118

Reactions Which Continue Forward or Run to Completion119

Explanation in Terms of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory119

Energy Absorbed or Set Free in Chemical Changes120

Importance of Chemical and Energy Changes in the Human Body122

Chapter 9Combustion and Oxidation-Reduction125

COMBUSTION OR BURNING125

Essentials for Combustion125

Fire Prevention128

Starting a Fire129

Spontaneous Combustion129

Stopping a Fire130

Noncombustible Substances131

Combustion of Organic Mate-rial132

OXIDATION-REDUCTION133

Explanation in Terms of Electron Theory134

Oxidizing Agents and Their Uses134

Reducing Agents and Their Uses136

Oxidation-Reduction in Living Organisms137

Chapter 10Nitrogen and the Atmosphere140

NITROGEN140

Cycle in Nature141

Coaxing Atmospheric Nitrogen into Combination142

AIR147

Air a Mixture147

Components in Constant Proportions147

Components Variable in Amount148

Air Conditioning151

Uses of Chief Components151

Chapter 11Solutions153

What a Solution Is153

Uses and Importance154

Solutions of Gases,Liquids,or Solids in Liquids155

Solubility156

Determination of Amount of a Substance Going into Solution157

Speeding Up Solution159

Saturation159

Crystalliza-tion159

Supersaturation160

Heat of Solution161

Con-centration of Solutions161

Physical Properties of True Solu-tions163

True Solutions,Colloidal Solutions,and Suspensions166

Emulsions173

Colloids and Noncolloids in Living Or-ganisms174

Chapter 12Ionization:Further Discussion of Acids,Bases,and Salts178

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes178

Special Properties of Solutions of Acids,Bases,and Salts178

Theory of Ionization180

Ionization of Salts181

Ionization of Bases183

Ioniza-tion of Acids184

Hydronium Ions and a Newer Concept of Acids and Bases184

Degree of Ionization186

Application of Ionic Theory to Peculiar Properties of Aqueous Solutions of Acids,Bases,and Salts186

Physiological Importance of Ioniza-tion195

Chapter 13The Halogens and Other Nonmetals198

THE HALOGENS199

Fluorine,F2199

Chlorine,Cl2199

Bromine,Br2201

Iodine,I201

Bleaching and Disinfecting Action of Chlorine201

SULFUR:PROPERTIES AND USES203

PHOSPHORUS:ANOTHER ELEMENT ESSENTIAL TO PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE204

CARBON AND SOME OF ITS IMPORTANT INORGANIC COMPOUNDS206

Important Compounds208

Chapter 14Uses of Inorganic Salts in the Body214

To Build and Repair Tissues215

To Assist in Maintaining Normal Osmotic Pressure Conditions219

To Maintain Normal Contractility of Muscles and Irritability of Nerves220

To Assist in Holding Substances in Solution in Body Fluids221

To Furnish Material for the Acidity and Alkalinity of the Diges-tive Juices221

To Assist in Maintaining the Neutrality of the Body222

Special Uses for Certain Elements222

Chapter 15Radioactivity,Nuclear Reactions,and Atomic Energy226

Dawn of the Atomic Era227

χ-rays228

Radioactivity230

Atom-Smashing Machines and Nuclear Reactions234

Artificial Radioactivity:Uses of Radioactive Isotopes237

Nuclear Fis-sion,Atomic Energy and the Atomic Bomb242

Chapter 16Introduction to Organic Chemistry249

Organic Compounds249

Differences between Organic Com-pounds and Inorganic Compounds250

Scope and Uses of Organic Chemistry254

Characteristic Structure of Organic Compounds255

Classes of Organic Compounds260

Chapter 17Hydrocarbons and Halogen Derivatives263

METHANE OR PARAFFIN SERIES263

Occurrence and Uses264

Physical and Chemical Properties268

HALOGEN DERIVATIVES OF METHANE SERIES270

Properties and Uses270

ETHYLENE AND ACETYLENE SERIES272

Properties273

Uses274

Polymerization275

CYCLIC OR RING HYDROCARBONS278

Chapter 18Ethers,Alcohols,Aldehydes,and Ketones280

ETHERS280

Properties and Uses281

Preparation283

ALCOHOLS283

Kinds284

Physiological Effects285

Chemical Reactions286

Uses289

Sources290

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES291

Intermediate Products of Oxidation-Reduction in Plants and Animals292

Properties294

Uses297

Chapter 19Organic Acids and Salts,Esters,Amines,and Amino Acids301

ORGANIC ACIDS301

Different Types302

Nomenclature303

Organic Acids in Foods304

Physical Properties306

Chemical Properties306

Strength308

Unsaturated Fatty Acids309

Uses of Organic Acids310

ORGANIC SALTS AND ESTERS311

Organic Salts311

Esters312

AMINES314

AMINO ACIDS316

Chapter 20Cyclic Compounds319

Differences between Open-Chain and Ring Compounds320

Occurrence in Plants and Animals320

CARBOCYCLIC HYDROCARBONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES322

Benzene322

Different Positions in Benzene Ring and Order of Substitution326

Toluene and Xylenes328

Alcohols330

Phenols and Derivatives330

Acids,Salts,and Esters333

Sulfonic Acids336

Nitro Compounds337

Amino Compounds337

Sulfa Drugs338

CONDENSED CYCLICS AND HETEROCYCLICS339

Condensed Carbocyclic Compounds339

Heterocyclics with Five or Six Atoms in Ring339

Condensed Combinations of Benzene Ring with Pyrrole and Pyridine340

Purines and Pyrimidines340

Alkaloids and Their Medicinal Uses341

Chapter 21Chemotherapy and Modern Drugs346

Chemotherapy with Arsenic and Mercury Compounds347

Sulfa Drugs348

Antibiotics349

Antihistaminic and Anti-emetic Drugs352

Hypnotics(Sleep-producing Drugs)354

Tranquilizers and Drugs Used in Mental Disorders356

Central Nervous System Stimulants(Analeptic Drugs)358

Vasodila-tors or Antihypertensive Drugs359

Chapter 22Carbohydrates362

Formation,Occurrence,and Function362

Composition and Molecular Structure363

Classification365

MONOSACCHARIDES OR SIMPLE SUGARS366

Structure366

Physical Properties368

Chemical Properties369

DISACCHARIDES370

Physical Properties372

Chemical Properties373

POLYSACCHARIDES373

Physical Properties380

Chemical Properties381

Chapter 23Fats and Related Substances384

FATS384

Occurrence and Chief Function384

Composition and Nomen-clature385

Physical Properties386

Fatty Acid Content387

Chemical Properties388

SOAPS391

FATS IN THE ANIMAL BODY394

Composition and Properties of Animal Fats394

Uses of Fats in the Body394

SUBSTANCES RELATED TO FATS395

Waxes395

Lipoids395

Classification of Lipids397

Chapter 24Proteins and Amino Acids399

Definition and Occurrence399

Formation by Plants399

Pro-teins in the Animal Body400

Composition of Proteins401

Amino Acids402

Linkage of Amino Acids to Form Proteins405

Size and Structure of Protein Molecules408

Essential Amino Acids,Adequate and Inadequate Proteins410

Physical Properties of Proteins413

Chemical Properties of Proteins414

Precipitation416

Color Reactions418

Classification418

Summary of Functions of Protein421

Chapter 25The Vitamins423

Definition and Discovery423

Sources424

Number and Names424

Chemistry425

What Vitamins Do427

Vita-mins as Catalysts in Animal Tissues429

Measuring Vitamins and Body Requirements431

Vitamin A432

Vitamin B1 or Thiamine436

Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin439

Niacin440

Other Vitamins of the B-Complex442

Vitamin C or Ascorbic Acid445

Vitamin D448

Vitamins E and K452

Obtaining Optimum Amount of Vitamins454

Chapter 26Digestion and Enzymes456

DIGESTION456

Necessity for Digestion of Food456

General Description of Digestion457

Chemical Changes Occurring in Digestion458

Digestive Fluids459

ENZYMES466

Enzymes in General466

Nature and Properties466

Different Types467

Coenzymes468

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity468

Digestive Enzymes469

Action of Bacteria in Digestion473

Conditions That Affect Digestion474

Chapter 27Transportation:Blood and Lymph478

Absorption of Digested Food Material Into Blood478

Func-tions of the Blood480

The Lymph481

Composition of the Blood482

Formed Elements484

Tissue Material of the Blood Plasma491

Nutritive Material in the Blood493

Waste Materials in the Blood495

Other Substances in the Blood497

Constancy of Blood Composition498

Regulation of the Re-action of the Blood498

Variations in Blood Composition as an Index to Disease501

Chapter 28Metabolism:Chemical Changes in the Tissues505

Nature of Metabolism505

Basal Metabolism506

Carbo-hydrate Metabolism508

Metabolism of Fats517

Metabolism of Proteins520

Summary525

ABNORMAL METABOLISM IN DISEASE527

In Diabetes527

In Liver Diseases529

In Acidosis and Asphyxia531

Disorders That Involve Deviations in Basal Metabolism531

Chapter 29Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones534

Endocrine System and Nature of Hormones534

Internal Secretion of the Pancreas:Insulin535

Thyroid Gland and Thyroxine539

Parathyroids543

Adrenal Gland Hormones544

Thymus and Pineal Glands548

Sex Gland Hormones548

Pituitary Gland551

Summary555

Chapter 30Elimination:Urine and Feces558

Function of the Excretory Organs558

How the Kidneys Secrete Urine558

Normal Constituents of Urine and Their Significance565

Nitrogenous Constituents565

Inorganic Salts567

Abnormal Constituents of Urine and Their Signifi-cance568

Tests for Kidney Efficiency571

FECES572

Composition572

Abnormalities572

Collection and Mark-ing573

Elimination of Metabolic Products by Intestinal Route573

MILK574

Appendix579

Table of Metric Measures with English Equivalents580

Common English Measures with Metric Equivalents580

Apothecaries’Weights and Measures withMetric Equivalents580

Conversion Factors for Weights and Measures581

Centigrade and Fahrenheit Thermometer Scales581

Temperature Conversion Tables582

Solubilities of Common Inorganic Compounds in Water583

Color Reactions of Indicators in Solutions of Different Hydrogen-Ion Concentrations584

Common Poisons and Their Antidotes585

Removal of Stains586

Index587