《Public Finance》求取 ⇩

PART ⅠINTRODUCTION1

CHAPTER Ⅰ．MEANING AND SCOPE OF PUBLIC FINANCE3

Public Finance Defined3

Public and Private Finance6

Public Finance and Economics7

Public Finance and Political Science9

Public Finance and History9

Public Finance and Statistics10

Scope of the Subject11

CHAPTER Ⅱ．DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC FINANCE13

Public Finance in Ancient Times13

Public Finance in the Medieval Period16

The Influence of the Cameralists17

The Influence of Adam Smith19

PART ⅡPUBLIC EXPENDITURES23

CHAPTER Ⅲ．INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS25

Government Is a Social Necessity25

The Nature of Public Expenditures25

Scope of State Functions28

The Limits to State Activity31

The Industrial Revolution Increased Public Expenditures32

Humanitarianism Expanded Public Obligations33

Differences between Public and Private Economy34

CHAPTER Ⅳ．THE CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURES36

Proper Classification Promotes Public Interest in Finance37

Classification Is Essential to Budget-Making38

Various Methods of Classification39

CHAPTER Ⅴ．THE INCREASE OF EXPENDITURES：THE FACTS46

Federal Expenditures49

General Conclusions Respecting the Federal Expenditure60

State Expenditures Also Have Increased Rapidly62

Growth of Municipal Expenditure64

CHAPTER Ⅵ．CAUSES OF INCREASING EXPENDITURES AND THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING THEM69

General Causes of Increasing Public Expenditure69

Causes of Increased Federal Expenditure76

Causes of Increased State and Local Expenditure77

Financial Significance of the Social Functions of Government79

Means of Controlling the Increase of Expenditures82

Expenditures in Relation to Wealth and Income88

CHAPTER Ⅶ．ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE94

Real versus Nominal Expenditures94

Ordinary and Extraordinary Expenditure95

Productive and Unproductive Expenditure98

Public and Private Viewpoints Further Contrasted100

The Economic Effects of Public Expenditure104

Expenditures to Safeguard Social Welfare Are Productive106

Expenditure to Improve the Quality of Social Life Is Productive106

Expenditure May Affect the Distribution of Wealth109

CHAPTER Ⅷ．CENTRAL VERSUS LOCAL CONTROL OF EXPENDITURE111

Federal Centralization113

State Centralization115

No Clear Principle of Functional Distribution115

Importance of Relative Resources117

Final Responsibility Rests with the State118

Subsidies and Grants119

PART ⅢPUBLIC REVENUES EXCEPT TAXATION129

CHAPTER Ⅸ．THE FORMS OF REVENUE131

The Classification of Public Revenues132

Revenue Sources under Cameralism133

Adam Smith＇s Classification of Revenue Sources134

A Proposed Classification of Public Revenues136

CHAPTER Ⅹ THE PUBLIC DOMAIN：LANDS AND FORESTS141

The Public Domain in Other Countries141

Problems of Policy Presented by the Domain142

Public Ownership of Forest Lands147

Deposits of Minerals and Metals in the Public Domain151

The Public Domain in the United States151

Preemption155

The Homestead Policy156

Financial Results of the Public Land Policy158

Reclamation159

CHAPTER Ⅺ．THE INDUSTRIAL DOMAIN：STATE INDUSTRIES161

General Motives for Public Ownership161

Characteristics of the Public Industry164

The Post Office as a Public Industry170

State Railways177

State Ownership of the Telegraph184

State Ownership of the Telephone185

State Banking186

State Manufacturing187

CHAPTER Ⅻ．THE INDUSTRIAL DOMAIN：MUNICIPAL INDUSTRIES190

Extent of Municipal Ownership in Great Britain190

Extent of Municipal Ownership in Germany192

Municipal Ownership in the United States193

Financial Results of Municipal Ownership197

Municipal Water Systems201

Municipal Light and Power Plants204

Municipal Railways206

Miscellaneous Municipal Undertakings207

Tax Exemption of Municipally Owned Utilities208

Municipal Investments210

General Conclusions211

CHAPTER ⅩⅢ．ADMINISTRATIVE REVENUES215

Financial Position of the Administrative Revenues217

Fines217

Fees218

Licenses220

Special Assessments223

Financial Significance of the Special Assessment226

Excess Condemnation232

PART Ⅳ TAXATION237

CHAPTER ⅩⅣ．MEANING AND DEVELOPMENT OF TAXATION239

Importance of Taxation239

Characteristics of a Tax240

Constitutional Restrictions on the Taxing Power245

Characteristics of American Taxation247

Rise and Decline of the General Property Tax248

Diversity of Taxation248

Revival of State Income Taxes249

The State Tax Commission249

Interstate Complications251

Separation of Sources of State and Local Revenue251

Some Technical Terms253

CHAPTER ⅩⅤ．SOME REQUISITES OF A SOUND TAX SYSTEM257

Fiscal Adequacy257

Economy260

Equity261

Elasticity262

Simplicity264

Diversity266

Flexibility268

CHAPTER ⅩⅥ．THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TAX BURDEN272

Taxation According to Benefit273

Taxation According to Ability275

Income as a Measure of Ability277

Proportional versus Progressive Taxation282

Earned versus Unearned Incomes285

Double Taxation287

Taxation for Nonfiscal Purposes290

CHAPTER ⅩⅦ．MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM TAXATION294

Legal Evasion of Taxes294

Theories of Tax Shifting296

Shifting Involves Price Manipulation298

Tax Capitalization299

Incidence of the Tax on Land308

Incidence of the Tax on Buildings311

Incidence of the Personal Property Tax312

Incidence of the Income Tax315

Incidence of the Sales Tax317

CHAPTER ⅩⅧ．THE GENERAL PROPERTY TAX320

Development of the General Property Tax320

Theory of the General Property Tax322

Theoretical Defects of the General Property Tax326

Administrative Defects of the General Property Tax332

Typical Structure of the General Property Tax333

Influence of Increasing Expenditure336

Methods of Evasion338

Competitive Undervaluation of Property340

Administrative Reforms342

The State Equalization343

The State Tax Commission344

Results of the General Property Tax346

CHAPTER ⅩⅨ．MODIFIED PROPERTY TAXES351

Classes of Property352

Different Methods of Dealing with Intangibles356

The Taxation of Tangible Personal Property359

The Taxation of Real Property360

Importance of Effective Administration360

Essentials of Land Appraisal361

Central Control of the Assessment Essential369

The Assessment of Urban Lands369

The Assessment of Buildings373

House Taxes as an Index of Ability374

The Exemption of Buildings and Improvements376

CHAPTER ⅩⅩ．TAXES ON CORPORATIONS381

Development of Corporation Taxes381

Methods of Railroad Taxation386

The Taxation of Other Classes of Public Utilities394

The Taxation of Banks396

Special Forms of Corporation Taxes400

The General Corporation Tax401

The＂Business＂Tax403

The Capital Stock Tax405

CHAPTER ⅩⅪ．CONSUMPTION AND OTHER EXCISE TAXES407

Principles of Commodity Taxation409

Development of Federal Internal Taxes412

Financial Results of the Federal Internal Taxes415

Incidence of Commodity Taxes418

The Customs420

State Taxation of Commodities424

State Privilege and Occupation Taxes425

The West Virginia Privilege Tax425

The Severance Tax426

The Occupation Tax427

CHAPTER ⅩⅫ．TAXES ON INCOMES428

The Civil War Income Taxes431

The Income Tax of 1894434

The Federal Corporation Tax of 1909436

The Modern Federal Income Tax438

The Corporation Income Tax441

War and Excess Profits Taxes443

State Income Taxes444

Principles of Income Taxation446

Whose Income Should be Taxed？447

How Shall We Define Taxable Income？450

The Methods of Assessment455

Rate Structure456

Exemptions and Abatements459

Earned and Unearned Incomes460

Administrative Aspects of the Income Tax463

Relation of Property and Income Taxes465

Publicity of Income Tax Returns466

Fiscal Adequacy of the Income Tax467

Disposition of the Proceeds of State Income Taxes468

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅢ．ESTATE AND INHERITANCE TAXES470

The Theoretical Basis of the Inheritance Tax470

Development of the Inheritance Tax471

Some Aspects of State Inheritance Tax Laws476

The Federal Estate Tax479

The Federal Gift Tax483

Fiscal Results of the Federal Estate Tax484

Proper Position of the Inheritance Tax484

Equalization of the Distribution of Wealth by Inheritance Taxation487

PART ⅤPUBLIC CREDIT489

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅣ．THE NATURE AND USES OF PUBLIC CREDIT491

The Nature of Credit498

The State as Debtor497

Conditions for the Rise of Public Credit499

Rapid Increase of Public Debts500

Causes of Debt Increase503

Public Credit and Democracy504

The Menace of Tax-exempt Securities506

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅤ．PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC CREDIT513

The Advantage of Public Borrowing Depends on the Purpose513

The Basis of Public Credit516

Public Credit Must Be Tested by Business Standards518

When Is It Legitimate to Borrow？519

The Economic Effects of Public Borrowing525

The Economic Effects of Debt Repayment532

Borrowing for War Purposes534

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅥ．THE FORMS OF DEBT539

Compulsory Loans539

Patriotic Loans540

Public Borrowing on Business Principles541

Public Debts Classified According to Duration542

Annuities543

Advantage of the Long Term Debt543

The Choice of Debt Forms544

Forms of Short Term Debt544

Legitimate Uses of the Short Term Debt546

Temporary Borrowing in England548

Treasury Certificates in the United States551

Treasury Notes554

Comparison with English Methods556

Economic Effects of Short Term Loans557

Treasury Certificates and Inflation559

Vigorous Taxation Essential561

Methods of Loan Flotation562

Terms of Issue564

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅦ．REDEMPTION，REFUNDING AND CONVERSION OF DEBT567

Advantages of the Perpetual Debt568

Methods of Debt Redemption572

Serial Bond Redemption574

Sinking Funds577

Federal Sinking Fund Policy579

Local Sinking Funds581

The Capital Levy583

Refunding587

Conversion587

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅧ．LOCAL DEBTS592

Causes of Local Debt Increase594

National and Local Debts Contrasted601

The Restrictions of Local Debts606

Provisions of a Model Local Debt Statute610

PART ⅥFINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION AND LEGISLATION613

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅨ．THE BUDGET615

Evolution of the Budget617

The Budget as a Report on the Finances619

The Scope of the Budget627

The Function of the Legislature630

Lump-Sum versus Specific Allotment Appropriations634

Correction and Revision of the Estimates637

Federal Budget Procedure644

Federal Auditing Reform647

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩ．SOME ASPECTS OF TREASURY ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT649

The Bank of England as Fiscal Agent653

The Federal Treasury654

The Independent Treasury656

Abolition of the Subtreasuries661

Treasury Organization665

State and Local Depositary Arrangements667

INDEX673