《英语是同修辞学 RHETORIC IN PRACTICE》

Ⅰ．THE BACKGROUND AND FIELD OF RHETORIC1

Historical Background of Rhetoric1

What Rhetoric Treats about To-day3

Rhetoric as a Practical Study4

Ⅱ．RHETORIC AS PRACTICED WITH WORDS6

General Discussion6

Ⅰ．Kind of Words to Choose7

(A)Choosing Words According to Nature7

1．Words for Clearness7

(1)Simple Words7

Exercises8

(2)Specific Words8

Exercises10

(3)Denotative Words10

Exercises11

2．Words for Accuracy12

(1)Words of Right Shade of Meaning12

Examples13

(2)Words of Right Degree of Meaning14

Examples14

(3)Words of Right Kind of Meaning15

Examples15

Exercises16

3．Words for Effectiveness17

Words for Connotation18

(a)Idiomatic Words18

(b)Descriptive Words19

(c)Figurative Words22

(1)Similes24

(2)Metaphors25

(3) Metonymy26

(4)Personification26

Exercises28

(B)Choosing Words According to Use29

Words in Good Use30

(a)Present Words30

(b)Reputable Words32

(c)National Words33

Exercises35

Ⅱ．Kind of Words to Avoid35

(A)Words to Avoid for Practical Utility36

1．Foreign Words not Naturalized36

2．Obsolete Words37

3．Newly-Coined Words37

4．Technical Words38

(B)Words to Avoid for Good Taste39

1．Colloquialisms39

2．Provincialisms41

3．Vulgarisms42

Exercises43

Ⅲ．RHETORIC AS PRACTICED WITH SENTENCES44

General Discussion44

Grammatical andRhetorical Classification of Sentences44

The Structure of Sentences45

1．Simple Form46

2．Modified and Enlarged Form46

Pleonastic Sentence Structure47

Elliptical Sentence Structure47

The Uses of Sentences48

(1)The Use of Simple Sentence48

(2)The Use of Compound Sentence48

(3)The Use of Complex Sentence48

(4)The Use of Compound-Complex Sentence49

(5)The Use of Periodic Sentence49

(6)The Use of Loose Sentence49

(7)The Use of Balanced Sentence50

The Essential Qualities of Sentences50

1．Sentence Clearness51

Ⅰ．Correct Diction51

(a)Position of Adverbs51

(b)Position of Modifiers in General．52

(c)Use of Pronouns52

(d)Watch for Squinting Construction．52

Ⅱ．Proper Punctuation53

(a)Placing of Period53

(b)Insertion of Comma and Semicolon53

(c)Use of Interrogation Point53

2．Sentence Unity54

How to Preserve Sentence Unity54

(a)First Determine Central Thought54

(b)Use Additional Clause for Explanation54

(c)Group Clauses with Semicolons54

Precautions Concerning Sentence Unity56

Precaution 1．Change of Subject56

Precaution 2．Separation of Ideas57

Precaution 3．Crowding Details57

Precaution 4．LooseArrangement of Relative Clauses58

Ways for Telling Sentence Unity58

1．By Total Impression58

2．By Proper Relation of Clauses59

Exercises for Sentence Unity60

3．Sentence Coherence61

What Sentence Coherence Is61

Ⅰ．Promotion of Sentence Coherence62

(a)Natural Order of Words62

(b)Logical Use of Negatives63

(c)Logical Connections and Relationships64

Ⅱ．Violation of Sentence Coherence64

(a)Needless Change of Construction65

(b)Relation between Participle and Noun or Pronoun65

(c)Relation between Pronoun and Antecedent66

Exercises for Sentence Coherence67

4．Sentence Emphasis67

What Sentence Emphasis Is67

How to Secure it68

Ⅰ．By Position68

(a)Beginning and End of Sentence68

(b)Order of Climax69

(c)Inverted Word Order69

Ⅱ．By Word Manipulation69

(a)Word Repetition70

(b)Word Antithesis70

(c)Omission of Uniniportant Words70

Emphatic Sentences70

(1)Short Sentence71

(2)Periodic Sentence71

(3)Balanced Sentence71

Exercises for Sentence Emphasis72

5．Sentence Euphony73

What Sentence Euphony Is73

Ⅰ．Promotion of Sentence Euphony73

(a)By a Natural Beginning73

(b)By Easy Movement74

(c)By Cadence at the End74

Ⅱ．Violation of Sentence Euphony75

(a)From Needless Repetition75

(b)From Harsh Combinations75

(c)From Metrical Structure76

(d)From Frequent Alliteration76

Exercises for Sentence Euphony77

6．Sentence Strength77

What Sentence Strength Is77

How to Secure It78

(1)Careful Use of Connective Words78

(2)Similar Construction of Contrasted Members78

(3)Liberal Use of Particular Terms79

Exercises for Sentence Strength79

Idiomatic Sentences Needing Special Attention80

Ⅳ．RHETORIC AS PRACTICED WITH PARAGRAPHS82

General Discussion82

Paragraph-Thought82

What a Paragraph Is83

The Topic of the Paragraph84

Paragraph as an Organic Structure85

Paragraph Plan85

Paragraph Analyzed86

Means of Paragraph Development88

1．By Definition88

Example Analyzed89

2．By Particulars and Details89

Examples Analyzed90

3．By Comparison and Illustration91

Example Analyzed91

4．By Specific Instances or Examples92

Example Analyzed92

5．By Presenting Reasons93

Examples Analyzed93

6．By Applying a Principle95

Example Analyzed95

7．By Stating Causes and Effects96

Examples Analyzed96

8．By Introductory and Summarizing Sentences98

(a)The Introductory Sentence98

Example Analyzed99

(b)The Transitional Sentence99

Example Analyzed99

(c)The Summarizing Sentence100

Example Analyzed100

General Laws Governing Paragraphs101

1．Paragraph Unity101

Examples Analyzed102

2．Paragraph Selection104

Examples Analyzed105

3．Paragraph Coherence107

(a)The Proper Arrangement of Sentences107

Example Analyzed108

(b)The Use of Proper Connecting Words109

Example Analyzed109

4．Paragraph Proportion110

(a)Sufficient Details to Show Purpose111

Example111

(b)Adequate Amplification111

Example112

(c)Ordinary Illustration for Simple Statement112

Example113

5．Paragraph Emphasis113

(a)By Repetition113

Example113

(b) By Space114

Example114

(c)By Contrast115

Example115

(d)By Position116

Example116

6．Paragraph Variety116

What Paragraph Variety Is116

Variety Secured by Diversity of Sentences117

Example Analyzed117

Types of Paragraph Structure118

General Discussion118

Kinds of Paragraph Structure119

Ⅰ．Expository and Argumentative Paragraphs120

(a) Logical Methods120

1．Inductive Method120

Example Analyzed121

2．Deductive Method121

Example Analyzed122

Two Methods Compared123

(b)Less Formal Methods123

1．ParagraphDevelopedThrough Definition123

Example Analyzed123

2．Paragraph DevelopedThrough Specific Instances124

Example Analyzed124

3．Paragraph Developed Through Causes and Results125

Example Analyzed125

Ⅱ．Descriptive and Narrative Paragraphs125

1．By Giving Incident126

Example Analyzed126

2．By Character Sketches127

Example Analyzed127

3．By Descriptive Sketches129

Example Analyzed129

Kinds of Paragraphs130

Ⅰ．The Isolated Paragraphs131

Example Analyzed131

Ⅱ．The Related Paragraphs132

1．Introductory Paragraph132

Example Analyzed132

2．Transitional Paragraph133

Example Analyzed133

3．Amplifying Paragraph133

Example Analyzed134

4．Concluding Paragraph135

Example Analyzed135

Exercises on Isolated Paragraphs136

Exercises on Related Paragraphs139

Written Exercises on Paragraphs154

Ⅴ．RHETORIC AS PRACTICED WITH WHOLE COMPOSITIONS156

General Discussion156

The Ways We Learn to Write Compositions156

Why Rhetoric Is Necessary in Composition157

General Rhetorical Principles of Relation158

1．The Principle of Distinction159

Example Analyzed159

2．The Principle of Sequence161

Example Analyzed161

3．The Principle of Climax161

Example Analyzed162

The Logical Order of Thought-Grouping163

1．The Defining Stage—Introduction163

2．The Developing Stage—Discussion164

3．The Applying Stage—Conclusion164

The Practical Plan of Composition165

(A)Concerning Introduction165

Examples Analyzed165

(B)Concerning Development or Amplification168

1．To Aid Memory—The Psychological Laws168

(a)The Law of Contiguity168

Example Analyzed169

(b)The Law of Similarity and Contrast170

Example Analyzed170

(c)The Law of Cause and Effect171

Example Analyzed171

2．To Give GoodMovement—Two Orders of Thought-Building172

(1)Inductive Order172

Example Analyzed173

(2)Deductive Order173

Example Analyzed174

(C) Concerning Conclusion175

1．Intellectual Type175

Example176

2．Emotional Type176

Example176

Classification of Compositions177

Ⅰ．Description177

Purpose of Description177

Example Analyzed178

Methods in Dcscription179

1．The Popular Method179

Example179

2．The Artistic Method180

Example180

3．The Scientific Method180

Example180

4．The Suggestive Method181

Example181

Points of View in Description182

1．The Fixed Point of View182

Example182

2．The Changeable Point of View183

Example Analyzed183

Selection of Details185

Examples185

Descriptive Compositions for Study185

Descriptive Compositions for Exercises190

Suggestions for Writing Descriptions190

Ⅱ．Narration191

Purpose of Narration191

Example Analyzed192

The Principal Elements in Narration192

1．The Plot192

2．The Setting193

3．The Character193

General Classification of Narratives194

Simple Narrative194

Example Analyzed194

The Requisites of Simple Narratives195

The Unity of Simple Narrative196

Example Analyzed196

The Sequence of Simple Narrative197

Example Analyzed197

The Climax of Simple Narrative198

Example Analyzed198

The Complex Narrative199

How to Change Simple Narrative into Complex Narrative199

The Obstacles, Physical and Mental201

Examples Analyzed201

The Suspense202

Example202

The Beginning of Narrative203

Example Analyzed203

The Climax of Narrative204

Example204

The Conclusion of Narrative204

Example204

Narratives for Study205

Narrative Compositions for Exercises207

Suggestions for Writing Narratives209

Ⅲ．Exposition211

Purpose of Exposition211

Example Analyzed212

Effective Exposition213

Process of Exposition—Analysis214

Example Analyzed214

Methods of Exposition215

1．Exposition by Narration or Description215

Example Analyzed215

2．Exposition by Paraphrase216

Example Analyzed217

3．Exposition by Abstract218

Example Analyzed218

4．Exposition by Definition—Intensive Exposition219

Logical Definition219

Example Analyzed219

Other Means of Logical Definition220

1．Exposition by Antithesis220

Example220

2．Exposition by Iteration221

Example221

3．Exposition by Analogy222

Example222

4．Exposition by Exemplification222

Example223

Expository Compositions for Study226

Expository Compositions for Criticism231

Subjects for Written Exercises233

Ⅳ．Argumentation234

Purpose of Argumentation234

Argumentation and Exposition234

Steps in Argumentation235

1．The Choice of the Subject235

2．The Wording of the Subject235

3．The Analysis of the Subject236

4．The Development of the Arguments236

5．The Conclusion236

Example Analyzed237

Two Forms of Argumentation239

(Ⅰ)Constructive Argumentation239

A．Through Direct Inquiry240

1．Personal Observation240

Example Analyzed240

2．Testimony241

Example Analyzed241

3．Authority242

Example242

B．ThroughReasoning—Induction243

1．Inference from Particulars243

Example Analyzed244

2．Particulars Viewed as Cause or Effect244

Example Analyzed244

3．Particulars as Circumstantial Evidence245

Example Analyzed246

4．Particulars as Example and Analogy247

Example Analyzed247

C．Through Reasoning—Deduction248

1．Syllogism in Literature249

Example Analyzed249

2．Syllogism in Enthymeme250

Example Analyzed250

3．Syllogism in Enlargement251

Example Analyzed251

(Ⅱ)Destructive Arg umentation252

Ⅰ．Analysis of Issues252

(a)By Reducing to Alternatives252

Example Analyzed253

(b)By Reductio ad Absurdum254

Example254

(c)By Dilemma255

Example Analyzed255

Ⅱ．Exposure of Fallacies256

(a)By Detailed Analysis256

Example256

(b)By Parity of Reasoning257

Example257

Argumentative Compositions for Study258

Argumentative Compositions for Exercise263

Suggestions for Writing Argumentative Compositions264