《INVERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY》

CHAPTER Ⅰ1

INTRODUCTION1

Definition of Paleontology1

The Organic World2

The Animal Kingdom5

Classification of Animals7

Habitats and Habits of Animals10

Definition of Fossil13

Nature of Fossil Record15

Unaltered Remains15

Altered Remains15

Impressions (Molds) and Casts18

Burrows, Borings, and Tubes19

Coprolites or Castings19

Miscellaneous Markings20

Uses of Fossils20

Use of Fossils for Correlation22

Fossils as Indices of Ancient Geography23

Fossils as Indices of Ancient Climates23

Fossils as Evidence of Evolution23

The Geologic Time Scale26

CHAPTER Ⅱ27

PROTOZOA27

Introduction27

Class Mastigophora (Flagellate)32

Class Sarcodina34

Foraminifera35

Nature of the Organism35

Relation of Organism to Test37

The Foraminiferal Test38

Classification of Foraminifera45

Ecology of Foraminifera45

Geologic History46

Amoebaea47

Testacea (Thecamoeba)47

Heliozoa48

Radiolaria48

Class Sporozoa50

Class Infusoria50

References50

CHAPTER Ⅲ52

PORIFERA52

Introduction52

Character of the Animal52

Shape of Animal53

The Body Wall53

The Canal System55

Reproduction56

The Skeleton56

General Skeletal Structure57

Fossilization of Skeletal Material58

Form and Character of Spicules and Skeleton58

Classification61

Class Calcarea61

Class Hexactinellida65

Class Desmospongia65

Forms of Unknown Affinities66

Ecology68

Geologic History69

References70

CHAPTER Ⅳ72

COELENTERATA72

Introduction72

The Organism73

The Polyp73

The Medusa75

Reproduction76

The Exoskeleton77

Development of the Exoskeleton78

Classification79

Class Hydrozoa80

The Organism80

Habitat and Geologic History81

Classification81

Group Stromatoporoidea83

Character of the Exoskeleton84

Geologic History85

Group Graptozoa87

The Exoskeleton87

Habitat89

Geologic History89

Biologic Affinities90

Classification90

Order Dendroidea90

Order Graptoloidea92

Axonolipa92

Axonophora92

Class Scyphozoa94

Class Anthozoa (Actinozoa)95

The Organism95

Relation of the Animal and Skeleton97

Reproduction and Ontogeny99

Habitat100

Classification100

Subclass Tetracoralla (Rugosa)100

Subclass Hexacoralla108

Order Madreporaria109

Order Antipitharia112

Subclass Alcyonaria (Oetoeoralla )112

Subclass Tabulata116

Class Ctenophora121

Appendix to the Coelenterata122

Archaeocyathinae122

Evolution of the Coelenterata124

Coelenterata as Rock Builders125

References127

CHAPTER Ⅴ129

WORMS129

Introduction129

The Organism129

Character of the Fossil Record131

Classification137

Phylum Platyhelminthes139

Phylum Nemathelminthes139

Phylum Trochelminthes140

Phylum Annelida (Annulata)141

Class Chaetopoda142

Subclass Polychaeta142

Order Phanerocephala (Errantia)143

Order Cryptocephala (Sedentaria, Tubicola)143

Order Miskoa144

Subclass Oligochaeta145

Subclass Myzostomida145

Subclass Echiurida145

Class Sipunculoidea (Gephyrea)146

Class Archiannelida146

Class Hirudinea (Leeches)146

Geologic History of the Worms146

Geologic Work of the Worms147

CHAPTER Ⅵ149

ECHINODERMA149

Introduction149

The Animal and its Habits150

General Considerations150

Symmetry of the Body150

The Water-vascular System151

Ambulacra and Food Grooves151

Attachment153

Habitat and Habits153

Ancestry155

The Test155

Stratigraphic Range157

Classification157

Subphylum Pelmatozoa158

Class Cystoidea159

The Calyx160

Ambulacral Areas and Arms161

Attachment163

Classification163

Order Amphoridea164

Order Rhombifera164

Order Diploporita165

Order Aporita165

Class Edrioasteroidea166

Class Blastoidea167

The Calyx168

The Ambulacra168

Brachioles and Stem171

Geologic History171

Classification172

Class Crinoidea172

General Considerations172

The Animal173

The Skeleton176

Evolution and Ontogeny180

Stratigraphic Range182

Classification184

Order Camerata185

Order Flexibilia185

Order Inadunata185

Order Articulata188

Subphylum Eleutherozoa188

Class Stelleroidea190

Classification191

Subclass Asteroidea192

Subclass Auluroidea193

Subclass Ophiuroide194

Class Echinoidea197

General Considerations197

The Animal197

The Test198

Ontogeny206

Ecology206

Stratigraphic Range206

Classification208

Order Bothriocidaroida208

Order Cidaroida208

Order Centrechinoida209

Order Exocycloida209

Order Plesiocidaroida209

Order Echinocystoida211

Order Perischoechinoida211

Class Holothuroidea213

Phylogeny of the Echinoderma215

Echinoderma as Geologic Agents217

References219

CHAPTER Ⅶ220

BRYOZOA220

Introduction220

The Animal223

The Skeleton224

Classification229

Order Ctenostomata230

Order Cyclostomata231

Order Trepostomata235

Order Cryptostomata239

Order Cheilostomata243

Geologic Importance and Ecology245

Evolution of the Bryozoa247

Geologic History247

References249

CHAPTER Ⅷ250

BRACHIOPODA250

Introduction250

The Animal252

Relation of Animal to Shell252

The Visceral Cavity254

The Muscular System255

The Brachial Cavity258

Attachment259

The Shell261

General Considerations261

Shape and Size of Shell263

Composition and Structure of Shell Material265

Surface Characteristics267

Structures on t he Cardinal Margin271

The Pedicle Opening274

Internal Skeletal Structures276

Brachial Supports277

Pallial Markings280

Muscles and Muscle Scars280

Classification281

Order Palaeotremata284

Order Atremata284

Order Neotrernata286

Order Protremata287

Order Telotremata292

Ontogeny and Evolution295

Ecology296

Geologic History297

Nature of Fossils299

References299

CHAPTER Ⅸ301

MOLLUSCA301

General Considerations301

The Animal301

The Shell304

Classification304

Class Amphineura306

Class Pelecypoda (Lamellibranchia)309

General Considerations309

The Animal310

The Shell318

Classification330

Order Prionodesmacea333

Order Anomalodesmacea333

Order Teleodesmacea334

Geologic History334

Class Gastropoda341

General Considerations341

The Animal342

The Shell345

Classification350

Subclass Streptoneura351

Order Aspidobranchia351

Order Ctenohranchia351

Subclass Euthyneura355

Order Opisthobranchia355

Order Pulmonata355

Geologic History357

Class Scaphopoda360

Class Cephalopoda363

General Considerations363

The Animal364

The Shell365

Classification382

Subclass Nautiloidea382

The Living Nautilus383

Order Holochoanites385

Order Mixochoanites385

Order Schistochoanites385

Order Orthochoanites386

Order Cyrtochoanites386

Subclass Ammonoidea386

Order Intrasiphonata388

Order Extrasiphonata388

Subclass Coleoidea.(Dibranchia)388

Order Belemnoidea388

Order Sepioidea389

Order Octopoda391

Geologic History391

Geologic History of the Mollusca400

Evolution of the Phylum400

Ecology401

Stratigraphic Range403

References404

CHAPTER Ⅹ406

ARTHROPODA406

Introduction406

The Animal and Its Exoskeleton407

Classification409

Class Crustacea410

The Animal410

The Exoskeleton412

Subclass Trilobita413

General Considerations413

The Exoskeleton414

Classification423

Order Opisthoparia426

Order Proparia426

Ecology429

Stratigraphic Range431

Nature of the Fossil Record432

Subclass Branchiopoda433

General Considerations433

Classification433

Order Anostraca434

Order No tostraea435

Order Conchostraca435

Order Cladocera436

Subclass Ostracoda436

General Considerations436

The Carapace or Shell437

Stratigraphic Range439

Subclass Copepoda440

Subclass Cirripedia440

General Consideration440

Geologic History441

Subclass Malacostraca443

General Considerations443

Geologic History and Classification443

Class Onychophora446

General Considerations446

Classification447

Class Myriapoda447

General Considerations447

Classification448

Class Insecta449

General Considerations449

Classification452

Geologic History456

Class Arachnida459

General Considerations459

The Exoskeleton460

Classification462

Subclass Merostomata462

General Considerations462

Order Xiphosura463

Order Synxiphosura465

Order Eurypterida466

Order Limulava469

Subclass Embolobranchiata469

General Considerations469

Geologic History of the Arthropoda471

Evolution471

Ecology474

Stratigraphic Range475

Nature of the Fossil Record476

References477

INDEX479