《CRIMINOLOGY SECOND EDITION》

ONEPERSPECTIVES AND METHODS1

1The Study of Crime3

The Nature of Crime and Delinquency3

Basic Concepts: Norms and Deviance, Laws and Crime3

The Characteristics of Crime4

Juvenile Delinquency5

Criminal Sanctions6

Formal Laws and Informal Norms7

Social Origins of the Criminal Law8

Crime as a Social Phenomenon8

Theoretical Perspectives on the Criminal Law9

Social Sources of the Law11

The Legalistic Definition of Crime12

Criminology: The Study of Criminal Behavior13

Typologies of Criminals13

A Conceptual Approach to Criminology14

Criminal Careers15

Reactions to Crime15

Solving the Crime Problem17

Summary17

Important Terms18

Suggested Readings18

2Methods of Criminological Research19

Comparative and Historical Research19

Tobias's Study of Crime in Nineteenth-Century England20

Observation21

Humphreys" Study of Tearoom Trade22

Biographies23

Klockars's Study of a Professional Fence23

Analytic Induction24

Cressey's Study of Embezzlement25

Patterns of Crime26

Wolfgang's Study of Homicide27

The Cohort Study28

Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin's Cohort Study of Delinquency28

Combining Research Strategies29

Conklin's Robbery Study29

Other Strategies of Criminological Research30

Summary31

Important Terms32

Suggested Readings32

TWOTHE EXTENT AND NATURE OF CRIME33

3Measuring Crime35

The Emergence of Modern Criminology35

Classical Criminology35

Cartography36

Positivism37

Official Crime Statistics38

History of Crime Statistics in the United States38

FBI Crime Statistics39

Crime Rates41

Gathering Crime Statistics46

Using FBI Data for Criminological Research52

Measuring Criminal Victimization53

History of Victimization Surveys53

Comparing NCS and FBI Data53

The Dark Figure54

Methodological Problems with Victimization Surveys57

Other Measures of Victimization58

Measuring Crime by Self-Reports59

History of Self-Report Studies59

The Dark Figure60

Methodological Problems with Self-Report Studies61

Summary62

Important Terms63

Suggested Readings63

4The Costs of Crime65

Financial Costs of Crime65

Different Costs of Crime66

The Costs of Crime in the United States66

Physical Harm from Crime75

White-Collar Crime75

Murder75

Forcible Rape76

Aggravated Assault76

Robbery76

Narcotics77

Social Costs of Crime77

White-Collar Crime77

Government Corruption and Police Brutality78

Organized Crime79

Conventional Crime79

Summary86

Important Terms88

Suggested Readings88

5Geographic and Temporal Dimensions of Crime89

Cross-National Variations in Crime Rates89

Japan90

China90

Canada91

Cross-National Comparisons of Murder Rates92

Regional Variations in Crime Rates within the United States92

Variations in Crime Rates by Size of Community94

Official Crime Statistics94

Victimization Surveys96

Crime within Metropolitan Areas97

Migration, Population Density, and Crime99

Temporal Variations in Crime Rates102

Crime and Day of the Week and Hour of the Day103

Crime and Seasons of the Year103

Annual Trends in Crime Rates104

Summary108

Important Terms109

Suggested Readings109

6Social Dimensions of Crime111

Variations in Crime Rates by Sex111

Sex and Juvenile Delinquency111

Sex and Adult Crime113

Sex and Victimization117

Variations in Crime Rates by Age117

Age-Specific Arrest Rates117

Age Distribution and Crime Rates119

Age and Victimization121

Variations in Crime Rates by Race121

Race, Arrest Statistics, and Self-Report Studies123

Race, Crime, and Background Variables124

Race and Victimization125

Variations in Crime Rates by Class126

Class and Adult Crime126

Class and Juvenile Delinquency127

Methodological Problems129

Class and Victimization130

Summary132

Important Terms133

Suggested Readings133

THREETHE CAUSES OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR135

7Biological and Psychological Causes of Crime137

Biological Explanations of Crime137

History of the Biological Perspective on Crime137

Modern Biological Research on Crime139

Biology and Modern Criminology145

Psychological Explanations of Crime146

Mental Deficiency Theory146

Personality Characteristics150

The Psychoanalytic Perspective156

Conditioning Theory159

Psychology and Variations in Crime Rates159

Psychology and the Criminal Law160

Summary164

Important Terms166

Suggested Readings166

8Socioeconomic Causes of Crime167

Socioeconomic Causes of White-Collar Crime167

Free Enterprise: Profits and Competition168

Market Structure and Crime169

Trust and Credit171

Corporations and Crime171

Development of New Technology173

Socioeconomic Causes of Organized Crime174

Prohibition and Organized Crime174

Organized Crime after Prohibition175

Organized Crime and the Economic System177

Socioeconomic Causes of Conventional Crime177

Modernization and Crime178

Opportunity and the Economy178

Unemployment and Crime179

Relative Deprivation and Crime180

Anomie and Crime181

Differential Opportunity and Delinquency185

Class, Values, and Delinquency187

Opportunity, Values, and Class: An Evaluation of Delinquency Theories190

The Subculture of Violence193

Socioeconomic Factors and Variations in Crime Rates197

Summary199

Important Terms200

Suggested Readings201

9Social Control and Commitment to the Law202

Neutralizing the Law202

Drift202

Delinquent, Dominant, and Subterranean Values203

Techniques of Neutralization203

Evidence on Techniques of Neutralization209

Embezzlement and the Techniques of Neutralization209

Justifications for Crime by Blacks210

Jastifying Murder210

Delinquency and Techniques of Neutralization211

Critique of Neutralization Theory212

Control Theory213

The Family214

The School214

The Peer Group214

Conventional Lines of Action and Adult Activities215

Evidence on Control Theory216

Comparing Delinquents and Nondelinquents216

Delinquency and the Family217

Delinquency and the School223

Delinquency and the Peer Group224

Delinquency and Religion225

Migration and the Disruption of Social Bonds226

Social Bonds in Other Societies227

Critique of Control Theory230

Techniques of Neutralization, Control Theory, and Variations in Crime Rates230

Summary232

Important Terms233

Suggested Readings233

10Learning to Commit Crime234

Sources of Learning to Commit Crime234

The Community234

Delinquent Gangs and Peer Groups235

The General Culture235

The Mass Media236

Pornography239

Correctional Institutions240

Differential Association Theory241

Principles of Differential Association Theory241

Critique of Differential Association Theory243

Modifications of Differential Association Theory244

Evidence on Differential Association Theory245

The Labeling Perspective249

Labeling and Self-Concepts250

Labeling and Opportunities254

Labeling and Subcultures255

Critique of the Labeling Perspective256

Rewards and Risks of Crime257

Operant Conditioning and Crime257

The Economist's Model of Criminal Behavior257

The Risks and Rewards of Crime260

Critique of the Rewards-Risks Model265

Learning Theories and Variations in Crime Rates265

Summary266

Important Terms268

Suggested Readings268

11Opportunity and Organization to Commit Crime269

The Routine Activities Approach269

A Critique of the Routine Activities Approach270

Targets of Crime270

Property Crimes271

Vulnerability of Victims272

Victim-Offender Relationships275

Social Characteristics of Victims and Offenders275

Relationships between Victims and Offenders277

Victim Precipitation280

Facilitating Factors: Alcohol, Drugs, and Firearms283

Alcohol and Crime283

Drugs and Crime285

Firearms and Crime286

Planning Crime292

Forcible Rape292

Shoplifting292

Burglary293

Robbery293

White-Collar Crime294

The Organization of Criminal Behavior294

Professional Theft294

Organized Crime296

Summary299

Important Terms300

Suggested Readings300

12Criminal Careers301

Analyzing Criminal Careers303

Career Contingencies303

The Labeling Perspective303

The "Zigzag Path": Criminal Careers and Legitimate Pursuits304

Recruitment into a Criminal Career304

Typologies of Criminal Careers305

Delinquent Careers308

Chronic Offenders309

Patterns of Delinquent Careers309

Juvenile Delinquency and Adult Criminal Careers310

Adult Criminal Careers312

Career Patterns312

Planning Crimes313

Use of the Stolen Money313

Intensive and Intermittent Career Criminals314

Leaving a Life of Crime315

Reasons for Leaving a Career as a Professional Thief316

Reasons for Leaving a Career as a Drug Dealer or Smuggler317

Exiting and Theories of Crime Causation319

Exiting and the Correctional System319

Summary320

Important Terms321

Suggested Readings321

FOURREACTIONS TO CRIME323

13Community Reactions to Crime325

Informal Control of Crime325

Community and Informal Social Control326

Architecture and Informal Social Control329

Individual Response to Crime332

Bystander Responses to Crime332

Collective Response to Crime336

A Historical and Comparative Perspective336

Urban Patrol Groups338

Community Crime-Prevention Strategies341

Community Reactions to Offenders341

Isolating the Offender342

Community-Based Corrections342

Summary344

Important Terms345

Suggested Readings345

14The Criminal Justice System346

The Police349

History of the Police349

Organization of the Police350

The Working Personality of the Officer352

The Clearance Rate357

The Courts359

Bail and Preventive Detention359

Prosecutors361

Defense Attorneys362

Judges363

Juries363

Plea Bargaining364

Probation365

Sentence Disparity365

The Prisons370

History of Prisons370

Prison Overcrowding371

Prison Riots372

The Prisoners' Rights Movement373

Prisons and Race374

Parole375

The Victim in the Criminal Justice System375

Compensation376

Restitution376

The Changing Role of the Victim377

Summary378

Important Terms379

Suggested Readings379

15Deterrence and Incapacitation380

The Deterrence Model380

History of the Idea of Deterrence380

Assumptions about Behavior381

Deterrence and Other Effects of Penalties381

Specific and General Deterrence383

Absolute, Restrictive, and Marginal Deterrence383

Deterrence and the Criminal Act384

A Typology of Crime Deterrence384

Deterrence and Conventional Crime385

Deterrence and White-Collar Crime386

Deterrence and Tax Evasion387

Deterrence and the Sanctioning Process388

Severity of Punishment388

Certainty of Punishment389

Certainty, Severity, and Informal Sanctions391

Promptness of Punishment392

Types of Punishment393

Deterrence and the Criminal Justice System394

Deterrence and the Police394

Deterrence and the Courts399

Deterrence and the Prisons400

Deterrence and Capital Punishment401

Incapacitation405

Types of Incapacitation406

Summary409

Important Terms410

Suggested Readings410

16Retribution412

The Retribution Model412

Retribution and Vengeance413

Retribution Compared to Deterrence and Rehabilitation413

A System of Just Deserts415

The Seriousness of Crimes415

The Unpleasantness of Penalties422

Linking Penalties to Crimes423

Retribution and the Criminal Justice System425

Retribution and the Police425

Retribution and the Courts425

Retribution and the Prisons428

Retribution and Capital Punishment428

Summary431

Important Terms432

Suggested Readings432

17Rehabilitation433

The Rehabilitation Model433

Historical Background433

Assumptions Underlying Rehabilitation435

Rehabilitation Compared to Retribution and Deterrence437

Rehabilitation and the Criminal Justice System438

Rehabilitation and the Police438

Rehabilitation and the Courts439

Rehabilitation and the Prisons440

Does Rehabilitation Work?441

Measuring the Success of Treatment Programs441

Types of Treatment444

Testing the Effects of a Group Counseling Program447

The Effectiveness of Treatment Methods449

The Future of Rehabilitation454

Summary455

Important Terms456

Suggested Readings456

18Solving the Crime Problem458

Ideological Approaches to Solving the Crime Problem458

The Conservative Approach458

The Liberal Approach459

The Radical Approach459

The Politics of Crime460

The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice460

The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration461

The 1968 and 1972 Presidential Elections462

The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals462

The Crime Issue during the Reagan Administration463

Crime and the Criminal Justice System464

Overreach of the Criminal Law465

The Police465

The Courts467

The Prisons469

Situational Crime Prevention470

Target Hardening470

Self-Protective Measures472

Informal Social Control472

Community Crime Prevention473

Dealing with the Causes of Crime474

Economic Factors474

The Process of Social Change476

Political Factors477

Community Ties477

The Family477

The School479

Discrimination480

Conclusion480

Summary480

Important Terms482

Suggested Readings482

Important Terms483

Bibliography492

Name Index549

Subject Index559