《JUDICIAL REVIEW OF GOVERMENTAL ACTION AND THE REQUIREMENT OF AN INTEREST TO SUE》求取 ⇩

Chapter 1: General Introduction1

1.Statement of the Problem and Method of Study1

2.Judicial Review of Governmental Action4

2.1.Governmental Action4

2.2.Judici Review6

3.The Purpose of Judicial Review8

3.1.The Purpose of Judicial Proceedings in General8

3.2.The Purpose of Administrative Proceedings10

4. The Procedural Requirements12

4.1.The Principal Categories of Procedural Requirements13

a） Procedural requirements which are connected with the submission of an application； the seisin （Fr.“saisine ”）13

b） Procedural requirements which are connected with the jurisdiction of the court （Fr.“competence” , G.“Zustandigkeit”）15

c） Procedural requirements which are connected with the admissibility of the application （Fr.“re-cevabilite”, G.“Zulassigkeit”）16

4.2.Procedural Requirements with Respect to the Appli- cant17

a） The requirement of the capacity to sue （Fr.“ca-pacite d'ester en justice”, G.“Partei- and Prozess-fahigkeit ”）18

b） The requirement of a special capacity or status （“locus standi ”, “standing”, Fr.“qualite”, G.“Pro- zessfuhrungsbefugnis ”）18

c） The requirement of an interest to sue （Fr.“in- teret a agir”, G.“Rechtsschutzinteresse”/“Rechts- schutzbedurfnis ”）21

5. Further Definition of the Term “Interest to Sue”26

5.1.Interest and Law26

5.2.Right and Action28

5.3.Public Interest — Individual Interest — Collective In- terest29

5.4.Interests Deserving Legal Protection31

5.5 “De Minimis Non Curat praetor”32

6.Summary32

Part A: National Procedures35

Chapter 2: English Law37

1. Introduction 37

2.The System of Remedies42

2.1.The Prerogative Orders （Writs）43

a） Prohibition43

b） Certiorari43

c） Mandamus45

d） Habeas corpus45

2.2.The Private Law Remedies46

a） Damages46

b） Injunction46

c） Declaration47

2.3.The Statutory Remedies47

3. The Requirement of an Interest to Sue48

3.1.The Interest to Sue Required for Prohibition and Certiorari48

3.2.The Interest to Sue Required for Mandamus55

3.3.The Interest to Sue Required for Habeas Corpus59

3.4.The Interest to Sue Required for Injunctions59

3.5.The Interest to Sue Required for Declarations65

3.6.The Interest to Sue Required for Statutory Remedies71

3.7.Excursus: The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of Organizations71

4. Summary72

Chapter 3: American Federal Law75

1.Introduction75

2.The System of Remedies82

3.The Requirement of an Interest to Sue in the Objective Sense84

3.1.The Constitutional Requirement of a “Case or Con- troversy”85

3.2.The Requirement of Ripeness86

3.3.The Requirement of Prior Exhaustion of Admini- strative Remedies89

4. Further Elements of the Required Interest to Sue92

4.1.Nexus between the Interest to Sue and a Legally Pro- tected Interest of the Plaintiff92

4.2.The Interest to Sue must be Personal and Direct97

4.3.The Interest to Sue must to some Extent be Capable of Individualization102

4.4.Excursus: The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of Organizations112

5.Summary114

Chapter 4: French Law117

1. Introduction117

2. The Various Procedures of Judicial Review of Administra- tive Action120

a） Contentieux subjectif122

b） Contentieux objectif123

3. Recours pour Exces de Pouvoir124

4. The Interest to Sue Required for a Recours pour Exces de Pouvoir130

4.1.The Requirement of an Interest to Sue in the Objec- tive Sense132

4.2.Nexus between the Interest to Sue and a Legally Pro- tected Interest of the Applicant136

4.3.The Interest to Sue must be Personal and Direct137

4.4.The Interest to Sue must to some Extent be Capable of Individualization139

4.5.Excursus: The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of Organizations146

5.Summary152

Chapter 5: West German Law155

1. Introduction155

2.The Various Procedures for Review by Constitutional and Administrative Courts162

2.1.Actions against Decisions163

a） Gestaltungsklage164

b） Leistungsklage （Verurteilungsklage）165

c） Feststellungsklage165

d） Verfassungsbeschwerde166

2.2.Actions against Regulations167

a） Abstrakte （selbstandige） Normenkontrolle168

b） Normenkontrolle with reference to regulations of the Lander169

c） Excursus: incidental review of regulations170

3. The Required Interest to Sue170

3.1.The Requirement of an Interest to Sue in the Objec- tive Sense172

3.2.Nexus between the Interest to Sue and a Legally Pro- tected Interest of the Applicant176

a） Subjektive offentliche Rechte178

b） Legally protected interests and legal reflexes181

3.3.The Interest to Sue must be Personal and Direct190

3.4.The Interest to Sue must to some Extent be Cap- able of Individualization192

3.5.Excursus: The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of Organizations193

4. Summary195

Chapter 6: Comparative Observations and Conclusions with Respect to National Procedures199

1. Introduction199

1.1.Actions having Predominant Features of the Conten- tieux Subjectif201

1.2.Actions having Predominant Features of the Conten- tieux Objectif202

2. The Requirement of an Interest to Sue in the Objective Sense204

2.1.The Purpose of the Proceedings must （Still/Already） be Realizable205

2.2.Prior Exhaustion of Administrative Remedies206

2.3.The Remedy Chosen must be Appropriate； the Ques- tion of Alternative Remedies209

2.4.The Interest Pursued must be Legitimate210

3. Further Specifications of the Required Interest to Sue211

3.1.An Official Representative of the Public Interest as the Applicant212

3.2.A Private Party as the Applicant214

a） Nexus between the interest to sue and a legally protected interest of the applicant215

b） The interest to sue must be personal and direct219

c） The interest to sue must to some extent be cap- able of individualization220

d） Excursus: the interest to sue required on the part of organizations223

4.Desirability and Feasibility of the Actio Popularis227

4.1.The Present State of Legislation and Case-Law； Some Arguments Pro and Contra227

a） Unnecessary interference with government policy229

b） Insufficient involvement of the applicant in the action231

c） Risk that the court may be overburdened232

d） The factor of costs233

4.2.Some Conclusions with Respect to the Actio Popularis234

5.Summary236

Part B: International Procedures239

Chapter 7: The Law of the European Communities241

1.Introduction241

2.The System of Judicial Remedies in the European Com- munities243

a） Action against Member States for failure to ful- fil the Treaty obligations （“recours en constatation de manquements”）243

b） Action for annulment （“recours en annulation”）244

c） Action against failure to act （“recours en ca- rence ”）246

d） Actions by civil servants247

e） Other possible actions247

f） Excursus: the plea of illegatyty and preliminary rulings248

3.The Requirement of an Interest to Sue in the Objective Sense249

3.1.The Purpose of the Proceedings must （Still/Already） be Realizable249

3.2.Prior Exhaustion of other Remedies250

4.The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of the Commu- nity Institutions252

4.1.Action for Annulment and against Failure to Act253

4.2.Action against Member States for Failure to Fulfil a Treaty Obligation254

5.The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of the Member States258

5.1.Action for Annulment and against Failure to Act259

5.2.Action for Failure to Fulfil a Treaty Obligation262

6.The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of a Private Ap- plicant268

6.1.Nexus between the Interest to Sue and a Legally Pro- tected Interest of the Applicant269

6.2.Additional Specifications of the Interest to Sue Re- quired in the Law of the ECSC272

a） Action against individual decisions and recom- mendations273

b） Action against general decisions and recommen- dations277

6.3.Additional Specifications of the Interest to Sue Re- quired in the Law of the EEC and Euratom284

a） The requirement of an individual interest to sue291

b） The requirement of a direct interest to sue299

6.4.Excursus: The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of Organizations305

7.Summary308

Chapter 8: The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms311

1. Introduction311

2. The Review Procedure provided for in the Convention314

a） The procedure before the Commission315

b） The procedure before the Court318

c） The procedure before the Committee of Ministers320

3.The Requirement of an Interest to Sue in the Objective Sense321

3.1.The Purpose of the Proceedings must （Still/Already） be Realizable321

3.2.Prior Exhaustion of Local Remedies327

3.3.The Application must not Constitute Abuse of the Right of Action331

4. The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of the States333

5. The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of a Private Ap- plicant336

5.1.Nexus between the Interest to Sue and a Legllly Pro- tected Interest of the Applicant341

5.2.The Interest to Sue must be Personal and Direct344

5.3.The Interest to Sue must to some Extent be Capable of Individualization346

5.4.Excursus: The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of Organizations348

6.The Question of the Interest to Sue in the Procedure be- fore the Court351

7.Summary359

Chapter 9: International Law: The Contentious Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice363

1.Introduction363

2.The Contentious Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice365

3.The Requirement of an Interest to Sue in the Objective Sense369

3.1.The Purpose of the Proceedings must （Still/Already） be Realizable372

3.2.Prior Exhaustion of Local Remedies381

3.3.Prior Exhaustion of the Possibilities for the Settle- ment of the Dispute by Means of International Non-Judi- cial Procedures391

3.4.The Application must not Constitute Abuse of the Right of Action395

4.Further Elements of the Required Interest to Sue397

4.1.The Interest to Sue Required in Actions which have a Direct Bearing on the Legal Position of the Applicant State397

4.2.The Interest to Sue Required in Actions in the Con- text of Diplomatic Protection399

a） The requirement of a link of nationality between the applicant State and the injured person403

aa Excursus: nationality of companies and interna- tional legal protection of shareholders406

b） The requirement of a genuine link between the applicant State and the injured person416

bb） Excursus: the requirement of a genuine link for companies and the international legal protection of shareholders423

4.3.The Interest to Sue Required in the Case of Actions in the Public Interest427

a） Introduction: the South West Africa cases428

b） The doctrine of humanitarian intervention437

c） Protection of minorities within the context of the League of Nations and the right of action in the public interest440

d） The International Labour Organisation and the right of action in the public interest449

e） The Mandate System and the Trusteeship System and the right of action in the public interest457

f） Other examples of actions in the public interest469

5. Summary475

Chapter 10: Comparative Observations and Conclusions with Respect to International Procedures477

1. Introduction477

1.1.General Principles of Law as a Source of International Law480

1.2.Character and Purpose of International Proceedings485

a） The remedies provided for in the law of the Eu- ropean Communities485

b） The remedies provided for in the European Con- vention486

c） The contentious jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice487

d） Gaps in the system of international remedies487

2. The Requirement of an Interest to Sue in the Objective Sense490

2.1.The Purpose of the Proceedings must （Still/Already） be Realizable490

a） Prior exhaustion of international non-judicial remedies492

b） Prior exhaustion of local remedies494

2.2.Alternative International Remedies495

2.3.Prohibition of Abuse of the Right of Action498

3. Further Specifications of the Interest to Sue Required on the Part of States and International Organs499

3.1.A State or International Organ as a Representative of the Public Interest499

a） The European Communities501

b） The European Convention503

c） Contentious proceedings before the International Court of Justice507

3.2.The State as a Representative of Special Interests509

4. Further Specifications of the Interest to Sue Required on the Part of Private Persons511

4.1.Nexus between the Interest to Sue and a Legally Pro- tected Interest of the Applicant511

4.2.The Interest to Sue must be Personal and Direct512

4.3.The Interest to Sue must to some Extent be Capable of Individualization513

4.4.Excursus: The Interest to Sue Required on the Part of Organizations516

5.Desirability and Feasibility of Extension of the Possibility of the Action in the Public Interest518

6.Summary521

Bibliography525

Index539

About the author557