《INDIUAL RESPONSIBLITY IN INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR SERIOUS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS》

Chapter Ⅰ. Introduction1

1. Aim1

2. Role of Value in Legal Enquiry2

3. Dual Character of Law (Method of Enquiry)8

Chapter Ⅱ. Individual Responsibility in Positive Laws of War15

1. In General15

2. War Crimes17

(ⅰ) Before Nuremburg17

Early Customary Law17

Hague Conventions and Regulations20

Inter-War Period22

(ⅱ) Nuremburg Charter and Judgments25

(ⅲ) Content and Legal Status of the Norm Since Nuremburg30

3. Crimes Against Peace36

4. Crimes Against Humanity41

(ⅰ) Before Nuremburg41

(ⅱ) Nuremburg Charter and Judgments44

(ⅲ) Content and Legal Status of the Norm Since Nuremburg46

5. Significance of the Nuremburg Trials and Expansion of 'Crimes Against Humanity'48

6. The Geneva Convention System of Grave Breaches51

(ⅰ) Substantial Aspects51

(ⅱ) Significance of the System of Grave Breaches53

7. Defenses to Allegations of International Crimes54

(ⅰ) Superior Orders55

(ⅱ) Duress58

(ⅲ) Mistake59

(ⅳ) Military Necessity60

(ⅴ) Reprisals60

(ⅵ) Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, 196863

Chapter Ⅲ. Individual Responsibility in International Human Rights Law65

1. Genocide65

(ⅰ) Background65

(ⅱ) Substantial and Procedural Aspects of the UN Genocide Convention67

(ⅲ) Present Legal Status of International Norms on Genocide72

2. Apartheid74

(ⅰ) Background74

(ⅱ) Substantial and Procedural Aspects of the UN Apartheid Convention75

(ⅲ) Present Legal Status of International Norms on Apartheid79

3. Torture80

(ⅰ) Background80

(ⅱ) Substantial and Procedural Aspects of the UN Torture Convention83

(ⅲ) Present Legal Status of International Norms on Torture85

4. Slavery87

(ⅰ) Background87

(ⅱ) Individual Responsibility for Slavery in International Law90

(ⅲ) Present Legal Status of International Norms against Slavery92

5. Principle of Non-discrimination92

(ⅰ) Substantial and Procedural Aspects of the Racial Convention95

(ⅱ) Present Legal Status of the Principle of Non-discrimination97

Chapter Ⅳ. Patterns of Implementation99

1. National Measures of Implementation100

(ⅰ) Doctrine of International Jurisdiction100

(ⅱ) Universal Jurisdiction - Content and Legal Status102

(ⅲ) Illustrative Cases in National Law108

Eichmann Case108

Filartiga Case111

(ⅳ) Conclusions Regarding Universal Jurisdiction and Domestic Implementation of Crimes in International Law114

2. Proposals for an International Criminal Court116

(ⅰ) Pre-World War II Developments116

(ⅱ) Present and Future Prospects118

Chapter Ⅴ. Codification of International Responsibility123

1. ILC Draft Article 19-International Crimes and International Delicts124

(ⅰ) Definition of 'International Crime'124

(ⅱ) Related Concepts129

(ⅲ) Question of Individual Criminal Responsibility for Serious Human Rights Violations132

2. Draft Code of Offenses Against the Peace and Security of Mankind133

(ⅰ) Content Ratione Materiae133

(ⅱ) Content Ratione Personae137

Chapter Ⅵ. The Position of the Individual in International Law139

1. Instances of Individual Legal Capacity in International Law141

2. Doctrinal Approaches149

(ⅰ) Classic Doctrine: Grotius and Vattel149

(ⅱ) Kelsen150

(ⅲ) Soviet Doctrine151

(ⅳ) Other Views152

(ⅴ) Some Empirical Approaches153

3. Relation of Individual Subjectivity and Individual Responsibility154

Chapter Ⅶ. Emergence of a General Rule of Individual Responsibility for Serious Human Rights Violations157

1. Specific Factors Enhancing Prospects for Emergence of the General Rule158

(ⅰ) Content of the Emerging Norm158

(ⅱ) Possible Legal Sources of the Emerging Rule163

2. General Factors Enhancing Prospects for Emergence of the General Rule167

Annex: Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind169

Bibliography207

Index223