《THE INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION VOLUME 2：ACCIDENTS AT SEA》

CHAPTER Ⅰ-REPORTING,INVESTIGATION,STATISTICS AND CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS1

(i)REPORTING OF CASUALTY OR INCIDENT2

1.IMO Requirements2

IMO Resolutions2

IMO Conventions3

Deficiency Reports5

2.English Law Requirements6

(ii)INQUIRIES AND INVESTIGATIONS10

1.IMO Rules10

2.English Law Rules13

Historical background13

The objective of an inquiry14

The Law governing inquiries14

Formal Investigation16

Re-hearing and appeal19

Inquiries into the death of a person on a British ship20

Prohibition or Improvement Notices22

(iii)CASUALTY STATISTICS24

IMO statistics24

Recent statistics(1930-34)25

(iv)CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS29

1.Defects in the design,structure of the ship or failure of the machinery30

2.Nature of the cargo,fires,explosions and/or method of stowage32

3.Perils of the Sea34

4.Sub-standard ships35

The EEC Memorandum on Port Control,198238

5.Working methods41

6.Human error42

7.War,sabotage and maritime fraud44

PART ONE ACCIDENTS49

CHAPTER Ⅱ-COLLISION AS A MAJOR CAUSE OFACCIDENTS51

(i)THE COLLISION RULES54

1.A brief analysis of the Collision Regulations,197254

2.The 1981 Amendments(first set)61

3.Proposed Amendments(second set)62

Rule 3(h)62

Rule 8(f)62

Rule 10(a)63

Rule 10(c)64

Rule 10(d)64

Annex Ⅰ,Section 2(d)65

Annex Ⅰ,Section 2(i)(ii)65

Annex Ⅰ,Section 1065

Annex Ⅳ,paragraph l(i)65

4.Duties of Masters in cases of collision65

(ii)CIVIL LIABILITY68

1.Fault68

Elements of fault68

A-Duty to take care69

Good seamanship:a common law duty69

Statutory duty71

B-Breach of duty72

Inevitable accident73

Evidence74

Res ipsa loquitur75

Conditions for application of res ipsa loquitur76

2.Damages77

Division of damages78

Right of recovery against two negligent vessels79

3.Causation79

Intervening natural event81

Intervening act of a third party81

Intervening act of the plaintiff82

4.Limitation of liability83

The meaning of "ship"84

Persons entitled to limit liability84

Fault or privity84

The amount of limitation88

(iii)CRIMINAL LIABILITY91

1.General Principles91

Meaning of a crime91

Elements of a crime92

Mens Rea92

Wilful default93

Recklessness95

Negligence96

Actus Reus97

Offences of strict liability97

2.Vicarious liability98

Where the servant's act is his Master's act in law99

Where the Master delegates his duties to the servant101

Where the servant is capable of being a Master103

3.Defences103

Mistake103

Drunkenness or intoxication by drugs105

Necessity or agony of the moment106

Superior orders107

4.Particular offences108

Failure to render assistance following a collision108

Proceeding to sea from a UK port in contravention of a detention order109

Carrying passengers in excess of a certified maximum109

Proceeding against the traffic flow in a traffic separation scheme109

A ship is unfit to go to sea without serious danger to life110

Discharge of oil or oily mixture into the sea from ships111

5.The Jurisdictional zones112

Territorial waters112

High seas112

CHAPTER Ⅲ-OTHER CAUSES OF NAVIGATIONAL ACCIDENTS115

(i)VESSEL TRAFFIC SERVICES(VTS)116

1.General Considerations116

Background development116

Meaning of VTS118

Worldwide application of VTS118

The IMO role119

The EEC decision119

Aspects of VTS120

2.Operational Procedures120

Objectives and reasons120

VTS Authority121

Scope of application121

Elements of VTS124

Code of Practice126

3.Legal Aspects126

The duty and responsibility of the harbour authority127

Safe port129

Regulations of the harbour130

The information provided by the VTS135

The duties of the Master136

The liability of the Controller and the Master137

(ii)ACCIDENTS CAUSED BY DEFECTIVE CHARTS141

1.Charting Principles144

A.The functions of the chart146

B.The work and duties of the chartmaker or hydrographer146

The work146

Compilation146

Promulgation147

Production148

The duties148

C.The efforts of the IHO149

Establishment149

Objectives150

Problems with which the IHO are concerned150

The major works of the IHO152

Co-operation with the IMO153

Regional hydrographic commissions or charting groups156

D.Future development:the electronic chart157

Advantages158

Disadvantages159

2.Rules on Liability160

A.Liability of the chartmaker160

Meaning of 'product'163

Meaning of the term "defective"164

Subsidiary rules165

B.The agent's liability167

C.The shipowner's liability168

D.The Master's liability170

E.Liability for defects in the electronic chart171

(iii)ACCIDENTS WITH WRECKS174

When a ship becomes a wreck174

Meaning of "wreck"176

Title to the wreck177

Historic and dangerous wreck sites180

Duties of the owner184

Duty to mark the wreck184

The marks186

Duty to remove the wreck188

Duties and powers of the harbour authority189

Liability to third party191

Limitation of liability194

The IMO efforts196

The 1972 draft196

The 1974 draft196

Geographical scope of application of the proposed instrument197

Types of "hazards" covered by national laws198

The party responsible198

Financial liability199

PART TWOCONSEQUENTIAL ACTIONS AND CLAIMS201

CHAPTER Ⅳ-SALVAGE AND TOWAGE203

(i)THE LAW OF SALVAGE204

The concept of salvage205

Public and private rules206

Recent developments207

Reforms209

1.The rules of salvage210

The incidents of salvage210

Maritime property210

Ship211

Wrecks211

Cargo211

Bunkers211

Freight211

Aircraft212

Human lives212

Services in tidal and non-tidal waters213

Services to an aircraft214

Action to be taken when survivors are picked up214

A.Conditions of a reward214

(a)Danger215

(b)Voluntary character of the services217

Legal duty217

The Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force218

Coastguards219

RNLI220

Contractual duty221

(c)Success223

Relations between several salvors224

Lien225

B.Negligence of the salvor225

Limitation of liability227

C.Assessment of the award227

Apportionment232

Interest on salvage remuneration232

2.Salvage Agreements233

A.Application of the general rules of the law of contract233

Setting aside the agreement233

Parties to the agreement234

B.The Lloyd's Standard Form of Salvage Agreement(LOF 1980)235

Analysis of the Agreement236

The Preamble236

Clause 1(a)236

Clause 1(b)238

Clause 1(c)239

Clause(d)239

Clause 2.Owners' duties239

Clause 3239

Clauses 4 and 5239

Clause 6(a) and(b)239

Conduct of the arbitration(cl.11 and 12)242

Provisions as to appeal(cl.13) and Conduct of the appeal(cl.14)242

Provisions as to payment(cl.15)243

General provisions243

3.The draft Convention on Salvage244

Art.1-1 Definitions245

Art.1-2 Scope of application247

Art.1-3 Salvage operations controlled by Public Authorities247

Art.1-4 Salvage Contracts248

Art.1-5 Invalid contractual terms248

Art.2-1 Duty of Owner and Master249

Art.2-2 Duties of the Salvor249

Art.2-3 Duty to render assistance250

Art.2-4 Co-operation of Contracting States250

Art.3-1 Conditions for reward250

Art.3-2 The amount of the reward251

Art.3-3 Special Compensation251

Art.3-4 Apportionment between Salvors253

Art.3-5 Salvage of Persons253

Art.3-6 Services rendered under existing contracts253

Art.3-7 The effect of salvor's misconduct253

Art.3-8 Prohibition by the Owners or Master254

Art.4-1 Maritime lien254

Art.4-2 Duty to provide Security254

Art.4-3 Interim payment254

Art.4-4 Limitations of actions255

Art.4-5 Jurisdiction255

Art.4-6 Interest256

Art.4-7 Publication of Arbitral Awards256

Art.5-1 Limitation of liability257

(ii)THE LAW OF TOWAGE258

Resolution A.535(13)259

1.The Rules of Towage260

A.Duties of the tug and tow260

Common duties260

Duties of the tug261

Duties of the tow263

B.Limitation of liability265

2.Contracts of Towage266

Distinction between towage and carriage266

Train boats267

LASH268

Supply of Goods and Services Act,1982271

Standard Forms272

Analysis of the UK Standard Conditions for Towage and Other Services(Revised,1983)274

CHAPTER Ⅴ-GENERAL AVERAGE281

Introduction282

Historical background of the general average rules282

The nature of the Rules283

(i)General Average Act284

A sacrifice284

An expenditure284

Conditions285

(ii)Outline of the Rules288

1.The Lettered Rules289

2.The Numbered Rules292

(iii)Adjustment of General Average Contribution296

Valuation of the Contributing Interests298

Security301

The Average Bond302

The Underwriters' Guarantees303

Deposits304

Evaluation of the Rules305

CHAPTER Ⅵ-PERSONAL INJURY307

(i)SEAFARERS AND OTHER PERSONS ON BOARD THE SHIP308

Safety Regulations309

Occupational safety311

The "Code of Safe Working Practice for Merchant Seamen"311

1.General Principles313

Common law313

The tort of negligence315

Measure of damages318

Breach of statutory duties320

Access between ship and shore320

Protective clothing322

Dangerous goods322

2.Safety,Liability and Compensation Acts324

A.Safety Acts and Regulations324

The Factories Act,1961324

The Health and Safety at Work Act,1974326

The Merchant Shipping(Safety Officials and Reporting of Accidents and Dangerous Occurrences) Regulations,1982327

The Merchant Shipping(Health and Safety:General Duties)Regulations,1984330

B.Liability and Compensation Acts332

The Occupiers' Liability Act,1957332

The Employers' Liability(Compulsory Insurance) Act,1969334

The Employers' Liability(Defective Equipment) Act,1969337

3.Jurisdiction339

The place of tort339

Can an employee bring his action before a foreign court?341

The Jones Act in the United States342

Factors to be considered345

(ii)PASSENGERS348

1.The Athens Convention on the Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage on Board Ships,1974348

2.Carriage of Passengers under English Law352

A.Safety Rules352

Ships engaged on international voyages352

Ships not engaged on international voyages353

B.Transport Rules355

CHAPTER Ⅶ-POLLUTION361

(i)OIL364

1.The discharge provisions and related requirements364

Discharge provisions364

Reporting366

Reception facilities368

Keeping oil records373

2.Liability and Compensation375

The CLC,1969375

The Fund Convention,1971377

Voluntary Schemes:Tovalop and Cristal377

(iii)NOXIOUS LIQUID SUBSTANCES380

1.Hazards and duties380

A.Hazards380

Chemicals380

The release of liquefied gas into the atmosphere380

Safety regulations382

B.Duties384

The IMO Codes384

Annex Ⅱ of MARPOL385

The Merchant Shipping Prevention of Pollution(Reception Facilities) Order,1984386

State liability388

2.The Draft Convention on Hazardous and Noxious Substances(HNS)391

The preparation of the draft391

A review of some provisions of the draft393

Definitions393

Scope of application397

Basis of liability398

The party liable for the damage398

Limitation of liability399

Compulsory Insurance401

Appendices403

Appendix Ⅰ-The York-Antwerp Rules,1974404

Appendix Ⅱ-Lloyd's Average Bond413

Appendix Ⅲ-Valuation Form414

Appendix Ⅳ-General Average Guarantees415

Appendix Ⅴ-Health and Safety at Work Seafarers416

Appendix Ⅵ-Draft Articles for a Convention on Liability and Compensation in Connection with the Carriage of Noxious and Hazardous Substances by Sea422

Index455