《SPACE LAW IN THE UNITED NATIONS》求取 ⇩

CHAPTER ONEREMOTE SENSING BY SATELLITESby W.de Graaff and G.C.M.Reijnen1

Introduction1

1.1The Technique of Remote Sensing by Satellites3

1.1.1 Passive Sensors4

1.1.2 Active Sensors5

1.1.3 Military Instrumentation6

1.1.4 Ground Support Facilities7

1.2Remote Sensing Systems in Existence7

1.2.1Remote Sensing Satellites for Civilian Use8

1.2.1.1 Meteorological Missions8

1.2.1.2 Earth Resources Missions9

1.2.2 Remote Sensing Satellites for Military Use15

1.3Remote Sensing by Satellites and Legality18

1.3.1 General Survey of Legal Problems Involved18

1.3.2 Background Problems Preventing a Legal Regulation19

1.3.3 Endeavours to Formulate a Legal Regulation-1972 through 198420

1.4 Internationalization of Remote Sensing by Satellites27

1.5 Conclusion29

Notes31

Annexes32

CHAPTER TWOTHE USE OF NUCLEAR POWER SOURCES IN OUTER SPACEby M.Benko and W.de Graaff49

Introduction49

2.1Accidents in the History of the Use of NPS49

2.1.1 Accidents in the USSR Space Programme49

2.1.2 Accidents in the US Space Programme54

2.2Satellite Orbits Before and During Re-entry54

2.2.1 The Orbit and its Position in Space Relative to the Earth55

2.2.2 Changes of a Satellite Orbit in Time58

2.2.3 The Re-entry of a Satellite and its Uncertainties58

2.2.4 Some Examples59

2.3Existing Types of Nuclear Power Sources and their Use in Outer Space60

2.3.1 Different Types of Power Sources Used in Outer Space60

2.3.2 Radio-isotope Thermo-electric Generators(RTGs)62

2.3.3 Nuclear Reactors62

2.4Safety Measures Connected with the Use of NPS in Outer Space63

2.4.1 Radiation Effects on the Human Organism64

2.4.2 Safety Measures for RTGs65

2.4.3 Safety Measures for Nuclear Reactors66

2.5The Probability of Accidents Involving NPS in Outer Space68

2.5.1 Adopted Characteristics of Typical NPS69

2.5.2 Release and Dispersion of Radio-active Debris70

2.5.3 Global Distribution Probabilities71

2.5.4 Results of Probability Estimates72

2.6 Summary of Safety Considerations;Conclusions74

2.7Deliberations in the United Nations:UNCOPUOS Scientific and Technical Sub-Committee75

2.7.1 Sessions 1978 through 197975

2.7.2 Comments on Basic Conclusions Drawn by the Scientific and Technical Sub-Committee77

2.7.3 1980 Session79

2.7.4 1981 Session80

2.7.5 Sessions 1982 through 198481

2.8Deliberations in the UNCOPUOS Legal Sub-Committee83

2.8.1 Sessions in 1978 and 197983

2.8.2 Comments on the Basic Question of the Necessity of Supplementary Legal Norms for the Use of NPS85

2.8.3 1981 Session86

2.8.4 1982 Session87

2.8.5 1983 Session90

2.8.6 1984 Session92

Notes93

Annexes97

CHAPTER THREEQUESTIONS RELATING TO THE DEFINITION/DELIMITATION OF OUTER SPACE AND OUTER SPACE ACTIVITIES AND THE CHARACTER AND UTILIZATION OF THE GEOSTATIONARY ORBITby M.Benko and W.de Graaff121

Introduction121

3.1The Delimitation Question:Some Scientific and Technical Aspects122

3.1.1 Basic Differences between Air Space and Outer Space122

3.1.2 Spacecraft Trajectories at Launch and Re-entry124

3.2Present State of the Legal Debate and Suggested Solutions within UNCOPUOS127

3.2.1 The Spatial Approach127

3.2.2 The Functional Approach129

3.2.3 A Third Approach to the Delimitation Question129

3.3Comments130

3.3.1 Arguments Pro and Contra Delimitation130

3.3.2Arguments in Favour of Delimitation130

3.3.2.1 State Sovereignty and its Limitations130

3.3.2.2 Possible Damage Resulting from the Passage of Spacecraft through Foreign Air Space131

3.3.2.3 The Spaceplane,a New Development132

3.3.3Arguments against Delimitation133

3.3.3.1 Practical Experience without Delimitation up to the Present133

3.3.3.2 Gradual Transition between Air Space and Outer Space134

3.3.3.3 Implications of Possible Future Developments135

3.3.4 The Passage of Spacecraft through Foreign Air Space135

3.3.5 Summary:Present Situation and Future Aspects of Delimitation136

3.4Questions Relating to the Geostationary Orbit137

3.4.1 Basic Facts about the Geostationary Orbit137

3.4.2 Present State of the Legal Debate137

3.4.3 Comments138

Notes142

Annex145

CHAPTER FOURTHE PREVENTION OF AN ARMS RACE IN OUTER SPACEby G.C.M.Reijnen147

Introduction147

4.1Existing or Planned Military Systems for Outer Space151

4.1.1 The USSR and its Military Space Programme152

4.1.2 The USA and its Military Space Programme153

4.1.3 Some General Remarks and Comments158

4.2History of Counteracting Measures of a Political Nature158

4.2.1 International and National Activities Outside and Inside the United Nations159

4.2.2 The Outer Space Treaty of 1967,in particular Article IV162

4.2.3Major Proposals Regarding Demilitarization Brought before the United Nations167

4.2.3.1 Proposal by the USSR of August 10,1981167

4.2.3.2 Proposal by France of Spring 1978168

4.2.3.3 Other Recent Negotiative Texts171

4.2.3.4 The UNISPACE 1982 Conference and Demilitarization173

4.3Legal Aspects as Regards the Militarization of Outer Space175

4.3.1Interpretation of Relevant Terms in Space Law175

4.3.1.1 The Terms 'Peaceful','Non-military' and 'Non-aggressive'176

4.3.1.2 The Terms 'Disarmament' and 'Demilitarization'177

4.3.1.3 The 'Common Interest' Principle178

4.3.2 Space Law as Part of International Law178

4.4 Conclusion182

Notes183

Annexes185