《THE UNITED NATIONS DECLARATION ON FRIENDLY RELATIONS AND THE SYSTEM OF THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL》

Introduction1

1.Object of the essay:Resolution 2625(XXV)as a specimen of"declaratory"resolution.Its features1

2.Limited scope of the analysis of the declaration.The preliminary problem of the legal effects of"declaratory"resolutions3

3.Samples of doctrinal positions4

4.Direct and indirect problems involved8

5.In particular:the theory of"declaratory"resolutions as expressions of the will of an"Organised International Community"10

6.Plan of the book.Purpose of the Appendix12

Chapter Ⅰ.The theory of Assembly declarations as special law-making acts14

Section 1.The alleged legitimation by a Charter or other contractual rule14

7.Decisions and recommendations.The non-binding character of General Assembly recommendations14

8.The language of the Charter(Articles 10-14)15

9.Travaux preparatoires16

10.Charter and Covenant compared.17

11.The practice of States.The UN Secretariat Memorandum on Assembly declarations18

12.Other possible sources of an Assembly's"legislative"function.Charter amendments and separate agreements20

Section 2.The alleged legitimation by a customary rule22

13.Logical possibility of the existence of a customary rule legitimising a law-making function of the General Assembly.Positive arguments advanced22

14.Evaluation of such arguments23

15.Negative data:the attitudes of States25

16.Further negative data29

Section 3.The doctrine of Assembly declarations as the expression of the"will"of the"Organised International Community"(and other doctrines)30

17.The doctrine of an"Organised International Community"and the Assembly's"legislative"function30

18.Impact of this doctrine.Renvoi to the Appendix32

19.The doctrine of international law as an"authoritative decision-making process"and the Assembly's"legislative"function33

20."Rules"and"process"in the concept of law34

21.The question of"authority".Renvoi to the Appendix36

Chapter Ⅱ.Assembly declarations within the framework of existing law-making and law-determining processes39

Section 1.Assembly declarations as part of the practice of States39

22.The value of Assembly declarations in general39

23.Assembly declarations and the law-making and law-determining processes40

Section 2.Assembly declarations and customary law41

24.The impact of declarations on Consuetudo and Desuetudo.International custom and the distinction between formal and material sources41

25.Resolutions and"United Nations practice"in a wide sense43

26."United Nations practice"and"States' practice at large"44

27.The element of"repetition".Declaration of rules of conduct and conduct46

28.Relevance of votes:majorities and unanimities49

29.The time factor52

30.Assembly resolutions as an"accelerating"element in the custommaking process54

Section 3.Assembly declarations and international agreement55

31.The content of agreement and the agreement56

32.The content of"declaratory"resolutions and the content of agreement57

33.The relationship between resolution and agreement58

34.Non-equivalence of vote and consent(as an element of agreement)59

35.The relationship between"declaratory"resolution and agreement as a case by case matter.Some general criteria61

36.Examples.Resolution 1962(ⅩⅧ)of 13 December 1963 on Outer Space;and the"Uniting for Peace"resolution63

Section 4.Assembly declarations and the general principles of international law65

37.Introductory65

38.The concept and nature of the general principles of international law Their relationship to the general principles of law recognised by civilized nations;other issues(a-f)65

39.The role of Assembly declarations70

Section 5.The role of declaratory resolutions in legal determination and interpretation73

40.The question of an Assembly's law-determining function according to the Charter73

41.The San Francisco documents on Charter interpretation73

42.Assembly decisions,arbitral awards and Court judgments.Respective impact on Charter interpretation76

43.Assembly recommendations as interpretative acts in a material sense.Spontaneous compliance77

44."Legalisation"of Assembly interpretations by custom or agreement78

45."Legalisation"of Assembly interpretations by arbitral award or judicial decision80

46.The theory of an Assembly's power of authentic interpretation81

47.Other doctrines87

Chapter Ⅲ.The status of resolution 2625(ⅩⅩⅤ)89

48.The legal basis of the"Friendly Relations"declaration89

49.The procedure for the drafting of the declaration compared to the ordinary method of progressive development and codification91

50.The declaration compared to codification treaties93

51.Differences in legal value among the enactments contained in the declaration.Conceivable possibilities(ⅰ-ⅲ)94

52.The declaration and existing(Charter and customary)international law95

Chapter Ⅳ.The formulation of the single principles98

Section 1.The prohibition of the threat or use of force in international relations98

53.The subjective and objective scope of the prohibition98

54.Meaning of"force"98

55.Indirect aggression.Armed reprisals100

56.Crimes against the peace.War propaganda.Acquisition of territory by force.Military occupation101

57.The violation of boundaries and of lines of demarcation104

58.The subjective scope of the prohibition of force.The problem of ius ad bellum106

Section 2.The obligation to settle international disputes by peaceful means110

59.The principle of peaceful settlement compared to the prohibition of force110

60.Essential features of the Charter system112

61.The conservative approach of the"Friendly Relations"Committee to the problem of peaceful settlement113

62.The"reform"proposals and their systematic rejection114

Section 3.Non-intervention117

63.Introductory117

64.Raison d'etre of international rules on non-intervention117

65.The prohibition of intervention and the prohibition of the threat or use of force.The problem of co-ordination119

66.Difficulties arising from the coexistence of the prohibition of intervention with Article 2.4 of the Charter121

67.General features of the formulation of non-intervention contained in the declaration124

68.The first sentence of the initial paragraph125

69.The second sentence.A possible interpretation126

70.Other conceivable interpretations128

71.The second paragraph.Overlapping with the formulation of the prohibition of the use or threat of force129

72.Conclusive remarks130

Section 4.Self-determination131

73.Problématique of self-determination in international law131

74.Whether self-determination is a matter of right132

75.The beneficiaries of self-determination according to the declaration:peoples or individuals134

76.The subjective scope of self-determination as formulated in the declaration:"all peoples"135

77.The objective scope of self-determination137

78.Further elements relating to the objective scope of self-determination137

79.The"right of resistance".The position of third States under the principle of self-determination138

80.The limits of self-determination.The clause safeguarding territorial integrity140

81.An assessment of self-determination.Lex lata and lex ferenda.Selfdetermination beyond the era of decolonisation141

Section 5.The other principles:co-operation;sovereign equality;compliance in good faith with international obligations142

82.Nature of the obligation to co-operate.Its relation with the other principles.Critique of the formulation142

83.The"principle"of sovereign equality.Tautological and repetitive nature of parts of the formulation144

84.Compliance with obligations.Technical improprieties and gaps in the formulation145

Chapter Ⅴ.The function of the declaration148

Section 1."Co-ordination of international legal systems"148

Ⅰ.Introductory148

85.The declaration as originally envisaged.Co-ordination of conflicting"International legal systems"148

86.The"socialist-capitalist confrontation";the north-south"confrontation"149

Ⅱ.The alleged confrontation of"international legal systems"153

87.The universal character of international law153

88.Errors involved in the pluralistic doctrines154

89.The essential unity of international law ratione temporis,ratione personarum,ratione materiae157

90.Dangers involved in the pluralistic doctrines159

Ⅲ.The doctrine of peaceful coexistence160

91."Peaceful coexistence"and"friendly relations"compared.The terminological issue160

92.Obstacles to the acceptability of the Soviet doctrine of peaceful coexistence as a legal doctrine.The substantive import161

93.The Marxist theory of law and international law162

94.Inherent limitations of the doctrine of peaceful coexistence163

95.The doctrine of peaceful coexistence and the nature of general international law164

96.The doctrine of peaceful coexistence ratione temporis165

97."Peaceful coexistence"ratione materiae.The institutional development of international law166

Ⅳ.The north-south confrontation167

98.Essence of the north-south confrontation.Lack of justification of a dichotomy of"systems"167

99.The"third world"and the institutional development of international law169

Section 2.The declaration's objectives170

100.The function of the declaration according to the relevant Assembly deliberations170

101.The declared objectives171

102.The declaration and lex lata172

103.The declaration and lex ferenda173

104.The declaration and the institutional development of international law175

Section 3.The declaration and legal policies177

105.The declaration as a possible"source"of international legal policies177

106.The place of legal policy in municipal law and in international law.Substantive and procedural differences179

107.Inadequacy of the declaration as a possible(material)source of international legal policies184

Conclusive remarks186

108.The causes of failure.The drafting procedure186

109.The choices of the United Nations membership187

110.The responsibilities of scholars190

111.Some contemporary approaches to the role of the scholar in the development of international law193

112.Shortcomings of such approaches:(ⅰ)de lege lata;and(ⅱ)de lege ferenda194

Appendix.The concept of international law and the theory of international organization199

Section 1.Introductory199

113.The doctrine of the"Organised International Community"199

Section 2.The concept of international law as the constitutional law of the universal society and the theory of international organisation201

114.The concept of international law as the constitutional law of mankind in the contemporary literature201

115.Essence of the said concept.International law as a decentralised system of inter-individual law204

116.Impact of the concept.Issues affected.Impact on the theory of international organisation.Main corollary:the alleged inherence of organisation in the universal society.Prior to Westphalia and after208

117.Another corollary.The treaty as an instrument of structural change of the universal society(the"centralising device")210

118.The municipal corporate body analogy and the constitutional theory of international organisation212

119.Westphalia reversed.The"centralising process"of the international system214

120.Further corollaries.The federal analogy and the theory of divided sovereignty in the study of international organisation215

Section 3.The lack of integration of the universal society and the nature of international law216

121.Unrealistic character of the"constitutional"theory.International law and the State216

122.Further data.International law and the subjects and agents of States219

123.The"State in the sense of international law"as a factual entity and the inexistence of a public law of mankind221

124.The origin of international law as law among sovereigns223

125.International law and inter-individual law in the universal society224

126.Human values and international law(as inter-State law)225

127.Historical"precedents"of international law as inter-group law228

128.The milieu of international law229

129.The characterisation of international law as opposed to inter-individual law230

130.Comparison with the"constitutional"concept.Affected issues232

Section 4.The lack of integration of the universal society and the nature of international organisation233

131.The organisation of inter-State relations.The problem of"original"organisation.Hegemony.Impropriety of the concepts of a"decentralisation"and"primitiveness"of the law of nations233

132.The municipal law"model"in the theory of international organisations235

133.The source of organisation in the corporate bodies of municipal law236

134.The activities of international organs distinguished:international activities in a narrow sense;and vicarious State activities.Verification of the municipal law analogy238

135.Continued:Superfluousness of the"community"(of States or peoples)concept240

136.Continued.Implausibility of the"community"concept243

137.Continued.Verification of the municipal analogy with regard to the legal personality of international organs.Source and nature of the legal personality of the United Nations.The personality of international organisations as a primary personality245

138.International organisations as instruments of structurally unaltered inter-State relations and co-operation:with regard to international activities in a narrow sense;and with regard to vicarious State activities250

139.Comparison with some dicta on international organisation252

140.The distinction between droit relationnel and droit institutionnel and the place of international organisation(the inter-State element)254

141.Continued:the institutional element.The"inner structures"of international bodies(the inter-individual element)255

142.The inter-State element and the inter-individual element of international organisation distinguished257

143.The inter-State element and the inter-individual element in the integrative and disgregative processes of international society.Deditio;annexation,protectorate258

144.Continued:the two elements distinguished in the formation of the United States.The"critical period"of the American Union260

145.Continued:the dichotomy of elements in the disgregative processes.Examples.The British Commonwealth262

146.Conclusive evidence offered by the foregoing analysis265

147.Distortions involved in the current theories of international organisation.Hegemony and international organisation266

Section 5.The alleged federal analogy and the concept of"divided sovereignty"in the theory of international organisation268

148.The alleged"federal analogy".Differences between the federal government-member State relationship and the international organ-member State relationship268

149.The theory of"divided sovereignty".The divisibility of sovereignty within federal law(and national law in general)270

150.Sovereignty"external".Limitations of sovereignty and limitations of freedom distinguished272

151.Error involved in the theory of sovereignty divided between States and international organs273

152.Reality and dogma in the theories of the relationship between sovereignty and international law274

Section 6.The theory of international organisation and the general criteria of interpretation of constituent instruments278

153.The interpretation of the constituent instruments of international organisations278

154.The prevalence of the contractual element279

155.International constituent instruments and federal instruments compared from the point of view of interpretation280

156."Authority-building"by international organs282

157.Evolutive interpretation.The"constitutional"theory of subsequent practice283

158.Critique284

159.The contractual(inter-State)element and the institutional(interindividual)element distinguished from the point of view of interpretation289

Section 7.The theory of international organisation and the normative role of the General Assembly290

160.The problem of"legislation"in the international society.The essence of legislation290

161.The traditional law-making processes of international law and the concept of legislation291

162.Continued:Custom292

163.Continued:Agreement293

164.Continued:the international agreement as inter-State contract294

165.The enactments of international organisations and the concept of legislation.The normative role of organs when carrying out vicarious State activities297

166.The normative role of international organs in the performance of international activities in a narrow sense.General assembly decisions;and recommendations298

Bibliography303

Annex:the"Friendly Relations"Declaration(General Assembly Resolution 2625-ⅩⅩⅤ)318

Index325

About the author341