《THEORY AND DESIGN OF STEAM AND GAS TURBINES》

1．Steam-turbine Types1

1-1．Introduction1

1-2．Nomenclature2

1-3．Classification of Turbines as to Flow Passages7

1-4．Classification of Turbines as to Flow Arrange-ment9

1-5．Classification as to Use and Operating Conditions10

1-6．Other Classifications14

1-7．Recapitulation of Classifications19

2．Gas-turbine Types28

2-1．Introduction28

2-2．Nomenclature32

2-3．Classifications32

2-4．Classification According to Application33

2-5．Classification According to Cycle41

2-6．Classification According to Arrangement43

2-7．Classifi-cation According to Combustion46

2-8．Classification According to Fuel47

2-9．Some Advantages of the Gas Turbine48

3．Fundamentals of Thermodynamics51

3-1．Introduction51

3-2．Thermodynamics Systems51

3-3．Processes52

3-4．Equations of State52

3-5．Equation of State of an Ideal Gas53

3-6．Some Other Equations of State53

3-7．Work55

3-8．The First Law of Thermodynamics57

3-9．Specific Heats58

3-10．Joule＇s Law60

3-11．Relationships between Specific Heats of Ideal Gases60

3-12．Adiabatic Processes61

3-13．Joule-Thomson Experiment63

3-14．Enthalpy64

3-15．Steady-flow Energy Equation65

3-16．Second Law of Thermodynamics65

3-17．The Reversible Cycle66

3-18．Some Consequences of the Carnot Cycle68

3-19．Entropy70

3-20．Some Consequences of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics73

3-21．Thermodynamic Properties of Gases76

3-22．The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation80

4．Steam-turbine Cycles83

4-1．Introduction83

4-2．Carnot Cycle83

4-3．Rankine Cycle83

4-4．Reheat Cycle86

4-5．Regenerative Cycle86

4-6．Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Cycle Efficiency87

4-7．Thermal Efficiency88

4-8．Heat Rate and Steam Rate90

4-9．Iechanical Efficiency91

4-10．Engine Efficiency91

5．Gas-turbine Cycles93

5-1．Introduction93

5-2．Carnot Cycle93

5-3．Ideal Brayton or Joule Cycle94

5-4．Irreversible Brayton Cycle96

5-5．Ideal Brayton Cycle with Regeneration99

5-6．Irreversible Brayton Cycle with Regeneration100

5-7．Stirling Cycle102

5-8．Ideal Ericsson Cycle104

5-9．Theoretical Intercooling105

5-10．Actual Intercooling107

5-11．Reheat109

5-12．Combined Effects of Intercooling,Reheating,and Regeneration110

5-13．Closed Cycles111

5-14．Operating Media Other than Air113

6．Elementary Gas Dynamics116

6-1．Introduction116

6-2．Continuity Equation117

6-3．Isentropie Flow Relations117

6-4．Sonic Velocity and Maeh Number119

6-5．Mach Waves121

6-6．Plane Normal Shock Waves122

6-7．Relationship of State Properties through Plane Normal Shock123

6-8．Inclined or Oblique Waves125

6-9．Strong Oblique Shock Waves130

6-10．Stagnation Temperature,Enthalpy,and Pressure134

6-11．Isentropic Flow in a Passage of Varying Cross-sectional Area136

6-12．Reynolds Number139

6-13．Adiabatic Flow with Friction in a Passage of Constant Cross-sectional Area140

6-14．Com-pressible Frictionless Flow with Heat Transfer in a Passage of Uniform Section147

6-15．Isentropic Flow in Nozzles151

6-16．Two-dimensional Concentric Circulatory Flow153

6-17．Elementary Airfoil Theory154

6-18．Induced Drag,Shock,and Compressibility Burble158

7．Design of Nozzles161

7-1．Introduction161

7-2．Nozzle Construction161

7-3．Critical Pressurs Ratios164

7-4．Nozzle Losses166

7-5．Divergence and Position Angles168

7-6．Wet Steam169

7-7．Supersaturated Steam169

7-8．Shock Waves in Nozzles172

7-9．Nozzle Discharge Coefficients174

7-10．Nozzle Calculations175

8．Energy Interchanges in Fluid Machinery181

8-1 Introduction181

The General Theory181

8-2．Momentum Principlee181

8-3．Streamline Theory182

8-4．Momentum and Circulation185

8-5．Energy Changes in the Fluid186

The Impulse Turbine186

8-6．Introduction186

8-7．Impulse and Reaction Forces187

8-8．Relative Velocity188

8-9．Blade Velocity188

8-10．Blade Work and Efficiency-Ideal Impulse Blades189

8-11．Velocity Diagrams190

8-12．Theoretical Work and Efficiency of the Simple Impulse Stage192

8-13．Combined Nozzle and Blade Efficiency-Simple Impulse Stage195

8-14．Impulse Tur-bine Staging195

8-15．Curtis Staging196

8-16．Velocity Ratio for Optimum Efficiency-Curtis Staging197

8-17．Mixed Staging198

The Reaction Turbine199

8-18．Introduction199

8-19．Velocity Diagrams199

8-20．Theoretical Work and Efficiency-Symmetrical Reaction Stage200

8-21．Comparison of Energy-absorbing Abilities of Various Stages202

The Aaial-flow Compressor203

8-22．Introduction203

8-23．Velocity Diagrams203

8-24．Energy Transfer from Rotor to Fluid204

9．Design of Turbine Flow Passages208

9-1．Introduction208

9-2．Isentropic Velocity Ratio208

9-3．Energy Distri-bution in Turbines209

9-4．Effect of Carry-over Veiocity on Energy Distribution216

Impulse Turbine Flow Passages219

9-5．Impulse Blade Profiles219

9-6．Blade Pitch and Width219

9-7．Blade Height221

9-8．Blade Entrance and Exit Angles225

9-9．Angle of Efflux227

9-10．Geometry of Impulse Blade Profiles229

9-11．Losses in Impuise Blade Passages230

Reaction Turbine Flow Passages234

9-12．Reaction Blade Profiles234

9-13．Blade Angles,Gauging,and Pitch235

9-14．Blade Width and Height235

9-15．Losses in Reaction Blade Passages238

Flow Passages with Radial Equilibrium238

9-16．Free Vortex238

9-17 Forced Vortex239

9-18．Requirements for Radial Equilibrium239

9-19．Velocity Diagrams240

9-20．Elements of the Airfoil243

9-21．Single Airfoil Principle245

9-22．Limitations of the Single Airfoil Principle250

9-23．Cascade Principle250

9-24．Secondary Flow Losses251

9-25．Some General Comments on the Design of Turbine Flow Passages251

9-26．Relationships between the Velocity Ratios252

9-27．Design Calculations for Impulse Stage Flow Passages256

9-28．Design Calculations for Multistaged Turbine Flow Passages260

10．Mechanical Aspects of Turbine Design271

10-1．Introduction271

Parasitic Losses271

10-2．Disc Friction271

10-3．Windage Losses272

10-4．Leakage273

10-5．Pre-ventive Measures to Reduce Leakage274

10-6．Labyrinth Seals274

10-7．Carbon-ring Seals277

10-8．Water,Steam,and Air Seals278

10-9．Special Sealing Devices279

10-10．Leakage Efficiency280

10-11．Bearing Losses282

10-12．Radiation Losses283

10-13．Miscellaneous Losses283

10-14．Stage Output and Efficiency283

10-15．Turbine Output284

The Turbine Rotor284

10-16．Blade Stresses284

10-17．Centrifugal Stresses284

10-18．Bending Stresses285

10-19．Vibrations288

10-20．Disc Stresses291

10-21．Blade Fas-tenings293

10-22．Shrouding296

10-23．Lacing Wires297

10-24．Cooling of Gas-turbine Blades297

Metallurgical Considerations298

10-25．Properties of Metals298

10-26．Creep299

10-27．Endurance300

10-28．Damping301

10-29．Corrosion; Oxidation301

10-30．Workability303

10-31．Characteristics and Properties of Some Alloys303

10-32．Materials Other than Steel303

Turbine Casing and Accessories304

10-33．Steam-turbine Casing304

10-34．Gas-turbine Casings306

10-35．Joints306

11．Steam-turbine Control and Performance309

11-1 Introduction309

Control309

11-2．Control and Supervisory Instruments309

11-3．Principles of Govern-ing311

11-4．Direct-acting Speed-responsive Governors312

11-5．Character-istics of the Simple Speed-responsive Governor313

11-6．Speed-responsive Governors with Servomotors316

11-7．Hydraulic Speed-responsive Gover-nor321

11-8．Pressure Regulators321

11-9．Speed Regulation and Parallel Operation324

11-10．Emergency Governors329

Performance330

11-11．Introduction330

11-12．Effect of Throttle Governing330

11-13．Effect of Initial Pressure and Temperature Changes332

11-14．Effect of Nozzle Governing333

11-15．Parsons Number and Quality Factor337

11-16．Performance of Automatic Extraction Turbines339

11-17．Performance of the Mixed-pressure Turbine343

11-18．A-C Generator344

11-19．AIEE-ASME Preferred Standard Turbine345

12．The Centrifugal Compressor349

12-1．Introduction349

12-2．Description and Operation350

12-3．Energy Transfers and Relations352

12-4．Losses353

12-5．Adiabatic Efficiency354

12-6．Effect of Compressibility354

12-7．The Diffuser356

12-8．Prewhirl357

12-9．Performance Characteristics358

12-10．Pressure Coefficient and Slip Factor361

12-11．Surging362

12-12．Centrifugal Compressor Design Calculations363

13．The Axial-flow Compressor371

13-1．Introduction371

13-2．Stage Characteristics372

13-3．Blading Efli-ciency376

13-4．Design Coefficients380

13-5．Blade Loading382

13-6．Lift Coefficient and Solidity385

13-7．Cascade Characteristics386

13-8．Blade Angles388

13-9．Mach Number and Reynolds Number389

13-10．Three-dimensional Flow Considerations390

13-11．Supersonic Axial-flow Air Compressor392

13-12．Performance Characteristics393

13-13．Axial-flow Compressor Computations394

14．Combustion401

14-1．Introduction401

The Thermochemistry of Combustion401

14-2．Combustion Equations401

14-3．Laws of Gas Mixtures403

14-4．Entropy of a Mixture of Ideal Gases404

14-5．Chemical Equilibrium405

14-6．Heat of Reaction408

14-7．The Le Chatelier Principle410

14-8．Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids411

14-9．Third Law of Thermo-dynamics411

14-10．Heats of Reaction and Heats of Combustion-The Reference State411

14-11．Flame Temperatures417

14-12．Dissociation418

The Mechanics of Combustion422

14-13．Combustibles in Fuels422

14-14．Combustion Mechanisms423

14-15．Physical Characteristics of Combustion and Reactive Mixtures424

14-16．Pressure Losses427

The Combustor427

14-17．Requirements of the Combustor427

14-18．Combustion Efficiency428

14-19．Fuel Injection and Atomization428

14-20．Combustion Chamber429

15．The Regenerator433

15-1．Introduction433

15-2．Heat Transfer433

15-3．Heat Transfer by Conduction and Convection435

15-4．Regenerator Types and Mean Temperature Difference437

15-5．Film Coefficient441

15-6．Pressure Losses445

15-7．Regenerator Effectiveness447

15-8．Some Economic Aspects of Regenerator Design449

15-9．Regenerator Calculations450

16．The Gas-turbine Power Plant456

16-1．Introduction456

16-2．Dimensionless Performance Parameters of the Stationary Plant456

16-3．Twin-shaft Plant461

16-4．Dimensionless Param-eters of the Aircraft Plant461

16-5．Torque Characteristics of the Gas-turbine Plant464

16-6．Starting465

16-7．Performance of Gas-turbine Power Plants469

Appendix473

Abridged Gas Tables473

Abridged Steam Tables488

Index487