《Europe in The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 1789-1950》求取 ⇩

PART ⅠTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON1

CHAPTER ⅠMODERN EUROPE1

Unity of European civilisation1

The State system of Europe，Balance of Power2

France at the end of the eighteenth century3

The House of Austria5

The States of Germany7

Russia8

The first partition of Poland(1772)9

The French Philosophers－Voltaire，Montesquieu，Rousseau10

The Physiocrats12

CHAPTER ⅡTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN PEACE13

Louis XVI13

Turgot14

Necker15

Financial chaos16

Calonne，The States-General17

The National Assembly，Siéyès19

The King＇s surrender，The three forces，Court，Assembly，People20

Fall of the Bastille(14 July 1789)21

The‘Bread＇march on Versailles(October 5-6)22

The‘Emigration，＇The‘Rights of Man＇(August)23

The Constitutional Debates25

The Constitution of 179125

Ecclesiastical legislation26

The flight to Varennes28

Massacre of the Champ de Mars(17 July 1791)29

CHAPTER ⅢTHE REVOLUTION AT WAR29

Parties in the Legislative Assembly29

Origins of the War30

The Polish Question32

France and the Empire，Convention of Pillnitz(27 August 1791)33

The Girondist Ministry and War(20 April 1792)34

20 June 1792 in Paris35

The rise of the Jacobins，The Fall of Monarchy(10 August 1792)36

The‘September Massacres，＇38

Battle of Valmy(20 September 1792)，Execution of Louis XVI(21 January 1793)39

European coalition against France40

Defeat and treason of Dumouriez，The War in La Vendée41

The Committee of Public Safety42

Fall of the Girondists43

Danton and Robespierre44

The Revolutionary Tribunal45

The Vendean War46

Carnot and the new Warfare47

The Second Partition of Poland(1793)，French Victories48

Divisions in the Jacobin party，The Commune49

The Reforms of 179350

Fall of Hébertists and Dantonists51

Fall and Execution of Danton52

Law of Prairial(10 June 1794)，Robespierre＇s speech in the Convention(26 July 1794)53

His arrest and death(28 July)54

The end of the Terror，the Risings of Germinal and Prairial，179555

The Constitution of the Year Three56

The Rising of Vendémiaire(October 1795)，Quiberon Bay(1795)57

Third Partition of Poland(1795)，Peace of Basel between Prussia and France(5 April 1795)58

CHAPTER ⅣTHE RISE OF NAPOLEON TO POWER59

Napoleon＇s early career60

Italy in 179661

Napoleon＇s methods62

French victories at Lodi and Rivoli63

Peace of Campo Formio(17 Octobe 1797)64

Napoleon＇s settlement of Italy65

The Direc-tory66

The Coup d＇état of Fructidor67

French Expedition to Egypt，The Battle of the Pyramids(21 July 1798)，and of the Nile(1 August 1798)68

Italy and Holland(1798)69

Switzerland and Naples70

Russia enters the War(December 1798)71

French defeats(1799)72

The Directory and Napoleon73

The Revolution of Brumaire(9-11 November 1799)74

The Consulate75

CHAPTER ⅤNAPOLEON，EMPEROR AND STATESMAN76

Austria and Great Britain continue the War76

Battles of Marengo(14 June 1800)and Hohenlinden(2 December 1800)，Peace of Luné-ville(9 February 1801)77

The Peace of Amiens(27 March 1802)78

Results of the Peace of Amiens79

Germany of in confusion，The Congress of Rasttat(December 1797)80

The first Napoleonic settle-ment of Germany81

Napoleon as First Consul82

Napoleon，Emperor of the French(18 May 1804)84

The Concordat85

The Code Napoléon86

France under Napoleon89

CHAPTER ⅥTHE DEFEAT OF THE GOVERNMENTS OF EUROPE92

The Balance of Power92

The Cisalpine Republic93

San Domingo and India94

Malta and the rupture with England95

The Grand Alliance96

Battle of Trafalgar(21 October 1805)98

Napoleon and Prussia99

Ulm and Austerlitz100

The Confederation of the Rhine(1806)101

End of the Holy Roman Empire(6 August 1806)102

Jena(14 October 1806)and Eylau(February 1807)103

The Treaty of Tilsit(7 July 1807)104

The zenith of Napoleon＇s power105

CHAPTER ⅦTHE RISE OF THE NEW EUROPE105

The Berlin Decrees106

The‘Continental System＇107

French annexation of Holland108

The revival of Prussia109

Napoleon＇s War against Spain112

The Erfurt Conference117

Austria renews War(1809)118

Signs of the future119

CHAPTER ⅧTHE CATASTROPHE OF NAPOLEON119

Sweden and Bernadotte120

Austria，Russia and Napoleon121

The‘Grand Army＇invades Russia(June 1812)122

The Retreat from Moscow123

The national rising in Prussia124

Metternich＇s peace proposals125

The Battles of Dresden(August 1813)and Leipzig(October 1813)126

The invasion of France(1814)127

Napoleon abdicates(6 April 1814)128

The return of the Bourbons129

The‘Hundred Days＇130

Waterloo(18 June 1815)131

PART ⅡFROM INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT TO REVOLUTION 1814-48133

CHAPTER ⅨTHE FAILURE OF INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT(1814-25)133

Treaty of Chaumont(9 March 1814)134

1st Treaty of Paris(30 May 1814)135

2nd Treaty of Paris(20 November 1815)136

Treaty of Vienna(9 June 1815)137

Holy Alliance(26 September 1815)and Quadruple Alliance(20 November 1815)139

The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle(1818)140

Castlereagh＇s declaration of British policy(5 May 1820)141

The Congress of Troppau(1820)142

Canning，The Congress of Verona(1822)143

Failure of the Congress system144

CHAPTER ⅩAUTOCRACY，CONSTITUTIONALISM AND REVOLUTION(1815-48)145

The Germanic Federation，The Carlsbad Decrees(1819)145

Reform in Prussia146

The Zollverein147

Frederick William IV，France under the restored Bourbons149

Louis Philippe and the Orleanist Monarchy151

The Belgian revolt152

Palmerston and Belgium，Spain and Portugal154

Weakness of the Orleans Monarchy156

Revolution in France(February 1848)157

Revolution in Poland158

Italy－attempts at revolt159

General tendencies in the period162

PART ⅢFRENCH，GERMAN AND RUSSIAN IMPERIALISM165

CHAPTER ⅪTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND THE ESTABLISH-MENT OF THE EMPIRE165

Paris and the Revolution165

Saint-Simon166

Louis-Blanc167

Socialist revolt168

Louis Napoleon169

Work as President170

Coup d＇état(2 December 1851)172

The Second Empire173

CHAPTER ⅫTHE REVOLUTION OF 1848-49 IN GERMANY，IN THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE AND IN HUNGARY176

Different forms assumed by the Revolution176

Germany178

Austria，Hungary and Prussia179

The National German Assembly180

Windischgratz suppresses Czech revolution in Prague，Jellacic，Ban of Croatia，attacks Hungary181

Failure of Revolution in Austria，Suppression of Liberalism in Prussia182

Hungary，Kossuth and Gorgei，The re-conquest of Budapest183

Russian intervention184

Hungary＇s surrender，Kossuth＇s flight185

CHAPTER ⅩⅢREACTION IN GERMANY，AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY186

The National Assembly of Germany offers the crown to Frederick William of Prussia，His refusal(3 April 1849)and the end of the Assembly(September 1849)187

Austria humiliates Prussia at Olmütz(28 November 1850)188

Reactionary policy in Austria189

Permanent results of the Revolutions190

CHAPTER ⅪⅤREVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS IN ITALY191

Pius IX，the Liberal Pope192

Pius grants a Constitution(March 1848)194

Rebellion in Sicily，and grant of a constitution(February 1848)，and in Tuscany，(February 1848)195

Charles-Albert，King of Sardinia196

Success of anti-Austrian rising in Milan(23 March 1848)，Charles-Albert declares for a United Italy197

Italian defeat at Custozza，(25 July)198

Disorders and constitutions suppressed in Naples，Tuscany199

Defeat of Charles-Albert at Novara(23 March 1849)，Victor Emmanuel maintains the Constitution of Piedmont200

Garibaldi and Mazzini surrender Rome(30 June 1849，)Manin surrenders Venice(24 August 1849)201

CHAPTER ⅩⅤTHE EASTERN QUESTION AND THE CRIMEAN WAR202

Section Ⅰ－The Near Eastern Question，1804-53202

The Turks，the Great Powers and the Balkan peoples202

The Serb revolt(1804)，The Greek revolt(1820)203

The Battle of Navarino(August 1827)，Russo-Turkish War(1828-29)，The Treaty of Adrianople(14 September 1829)204

Independence of Greece(1832)，Russian policy(1829-40)205

Mehemet Ali attacks Turkey206

Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi(8 July 1833)，The Turks attack Mehemet Ali(June 1839)207

Palmerston＇s Convention of London(15 July 1840)208

Mehemet Ali submits(25 November 1840)，The Straits Convention(13 July 1841)209

Section Ⅱ－The Crimean War210

The growing weakness of Turkey210

Russia＇s religious claims，The Czar＇s proposals(January 1853)212

The Holy Places，Lord Stratford de Redcliffe213

Russia in the Principalities，Turkey declares war on Russia(4 October 1853)214

France and Britain declare war(27 March 1854)，The Four Points215

The Siege of Sebastopol(Septem-ber 1854-September 1855)216

The Vienna Conference(March-May 1855)217

The Fall of Sebastopol218

The Congress and Peace Treaty of Paris(30 March 1856)，Declaration on Maritime Law219

Failure of Turkey to reform220

Changes in the Balkans－Greece，Serbia，Montenegro and Rumania220

CHAPTER ⅩⅥTHE RISORGIMENTO AND THE UNION OF ITALY224

Nationality in Italy224

Mazzini226

Piedmont and the rise of Cavour227

Cavour at the Congress of Paris228

Cavour and Napoleon III229

Austria attacks Piedmont(April 1859)230

Napoleon III invades Italy231

Battles of Magenta(4 June)and Solferino(24 June)232

The Preliminaries of Villafranca(11 July)233

Italian movements towards unity，French annexation of Nice and Savoy234

Naples235

Garibaldi236

His conquest of Sicily(May 1860)，He enters Naples(7 September)237

The Kingdom of Italy238

CHAPTER ⅩⅦTHE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE239

Difficulties of Napoleon III239

The Opposition240

The Mexican adventure(1862-67)241

The Parliamentary situation，Thiers and Ollivier243

Military position of France244

The Liberal Empire245

The Roman Question246

CHAPTER ⅩⅧGERMANY TO THE SEVEN WEEKS＇WAR(1848-66)246

Austria：The October Diploma(1860)247

Prussia：Zollverein，King William I247

Roon and Bismarck249

Bismarck＇s early career250

The Frankfort Conference，The Polish Insurrection(1863)251

The Schleswig-Holstein Question252

Austria and Prussia attack Den-mark253

The Treaty of Vienna(30 October 1864)254

Bismarck and Italy(1865)255

Austro-Prussian friction256

Bismarck and Napoleon III，The Frankfort Diet(June 1866)257

CHAPTER ⅩⅨTHE DEFEAT OF AUSTRIA AND THE COMING OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR258

Moltke and the Prussian Army258

Austrians defeated at Sadowa(3 July 1866)，Italians defeated at Custozza(24 July)260

The Treaty of Prague(23 August 1866)261

Napoleon III＇s demands on the Rhine，Belgium and Luxemburg262

The North German Confederation264

Francis Joseph and Hungary265

The Ausgleich(1867)266

Spain under two Queens267

The Hohenzollern candidature for the Spanish Crown269

French policy，Bismarck and the Ems Telegram270

CHAPTER ⅩⅩTHE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR AND ITS EFFECTS271

Moltke271

French disasters(August 1870)272

Sedan(1 September)，collapse of the Empire273

Siege of Paris(30 September 1870-28 January 1871)274

Gambetta＇s resistance，Bazaine surrenders Metz(27 October 1870)275

Fall of Paris and armistice(28 January 1871)276

Russia and the Black Sea clauses277

The German Empire pro-claimed(18 January 1871)278

The new German Constitution(1873)279

The French Assembly at Versailles280

The Treaty of Frankfort(10 May 1871)281

CHAPTER ⅩⅪTHE FOUNDATION OF THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC281

The Commune282

Thiers283

Defeat of the Communards284

The German indemnity paid285

The Monarchists overthrow Thiers286

The new French Constitution287

Grévy succeeds MacMahon289

The Boulangist movement291

PART ⅣTHE GREAT ALLIANCES AND THE BALANCE OF POWER293

CHAPTER ⅩⅫRUSSIA AND THE EASTERN QUESTION，1856-86293

Lines of expansion for European Powers293

Russia under Alexander II294

Polish revolt(1863)295

Pan-Slavism，Jan Kollár，Safarik296

Pan-Slav Exhibition at St．Petersburg(1867)297

Revolt in Bosnia，The Bulgarian Atrocities298

Disraeli and Gladstone299

The Constantinople Conference300

The Russo-Turkish War(April 1877-March 1878)，The Treaty of San Stefano301

Terms of the Treaty of San Stefano，The Balkan States－Bosnia，Herzegovina，Serbia，Montenegro and Bulgaria302

Salisbury＇s Circular(1 April 1878)，Disraeli and Cyprus303

The Congress of Berlin(13 June-13 July 1878)304

Results of the Treaty of Berlin－reform in Asiatic Turkey，Armenia，Batum305

Russia and Bulgaria306

Union of the two Bulgarias，Significance of the Congress of Berlin307

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅢTHE GROWTH OF COLONISATION，OF TRADE，AND OF OVERSEAS EMPIRE，1815-92308

Different forms of colonisation308

British expansion309

The French occupy Algiers310

French Colonial policy311

The French in North Africa312

The Suez Canal，China313

Russia in the Caucasus314

Russia and Turkestan315

Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia，Russia is diverted to China316

French occupation of Tunis(1881)，Anglo-French control in Egypt317

German colonial enterprise，The Congo，The Conference of Berlin(October 1884-February 1885)320

Results of Colonial development321

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅣBISMARCK AND THE FORMATION OF THE TRIPLE AND DUAL ALLIANCES，1879-94322

Bismarck＇s system322

The Dreikaiserbund(1871-3)，The Austro-German Treaty(7 October 1879)323

The Dreikaiserbund Treaty(18 June 1881)324

Triple Alliance Treaty(20 May 1882)325

The‘Re-insurance Treaty＇(18 June 1887)326

The Bulgarian imbroglio327

Bismarck＇s policy，his fall(1890)328

The formation of the Dual Alliance(1891-93)329

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅤTHE ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE AND THE FRANCO-BRITISH ENTENTE，1895-1905330

The Sino-Japanese War，Attitude of the Powers，The Kruger Telegram，330

Germany seizes Kiao-Chau(November 1897)，The Other Powers seek compensation331

Britain approaches Germany(1898)，Fashoda(1898)332

1st Hague Peace Conference(May-July 1899)，The Boer War(October 1899)333

Peace between England and Boers(May 1902)，Anglo-German Agreement on China(16 October 1900)Anglo-German negotiations334

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance(30 January 1902)335

The Venezuelan incident(1902)，The isolation of Germany336

Janpan declares war on Russia(February 1904)，The Anglo-French Agreements signed(8 April 1904)337

The secret clauses of the Entente，Germany and the Entente338

Morocco，the Kaiser at Tangier(31 March 1905)339

End of the Russo-Japanese war(5 September 1905)，Renewal of Anglo-Japanese Alliance(12 August 1905，Relations of the Powers in 1905340

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅥTHE STATES OF EUROPE BEFORE THE CATASTROPHE341

The States of Europe in 1906341

The‘Encirclement＇policy，Ententes and Alliances342

Public opinion in Britain343

Instability of France344

Franco-German relations345

Reaction and Revolution in Russia345

Russian policy in the Near and Middle East，Italy＇s moderate policy347

Italy and the Central Powers，Germany－the Kaiser，348

The German Kaiser and his Ministers349

The Baghdad Railway and the German Naval Programme350

Austria-Hungary－racial problems351

Germany＇s blank cheque353

Sum-mary354

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅦTHE THREE CRISES－ALGECIRAS－BOSNIA－AGADIR－1906-11354

The Algeciras Conference(1906)355

Anglo-French naval and military conversations356

The Treaty of Bjorko(25 July 1905)357

The Anglo-Russian Agreements(31 August 1907)358

The Powers and the Balkans359

The‘Young Turk＇Revolution360

The crises in Bulgaria and Bosnia(1908)361

The Powers and the Austrian annexa-tion of Bosnia362

Resentment of Serbia363

Humiliation of Russia364

Results of the Balkan Crisis365

The Second Hague Peace Con-ference(June-October 1907)366

Anglo-German naval rivalry367

Anglo-German negotiations(1909-11)368

France and Germany in Morocco369

The Panther at Agadir370

Lloyd George＇s Mansion House speech(21 July 1911)Results of Agadir371

Italy and Tripoli372

The Haldane Mission，The Neutrality formula373

The Grey-Cambon letters(22 November 1912)374

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅧFROM THE BALKAN LEAGUE TO THE WAR OF 1914375

Genesis of the Balkan Wars375

The Balkan League(1911-12)，Sazonov and the outbreak of War(8 October 1912)376

Turkish defeats，The Armistics(3 December 1912)377

Further victories of the Balkan League(March 1913)378

Albania，the Treaty of London(30 May 1913)，Bulgaria attacks Serbia，The Treaty of Bucharest(10 August 1913)379

Terms of the Treaty of Bucharest380

Russian policy in Turkey，German reorganisation of the Turkish Army，The Straits question381

Anglo-Russian naval conversations382

Military effect of the Balkan Wars383

German anxieties384

Rumania and the Triple Alliance385

Serbo-Croat unrest386

Austria-Hungary and Serbia，Assassination of Franz Ferdinand387

Germany＇s attitude388

Mobilisation of the Powers389

Attitude of France390

Attitude of England391

Grey and the French coast392

British ultimatum(4 August 1914)392

The Outbreak of War394

PART ⅤTHE WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH IN EUROPE AND ASIA，1914-23395

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅨTHE WAR，1914-18395

Ⅰ．1914：The Russian offensive395

The Battle of Tannenberg397

Stalemate in the East398

The West：The Schlieffen Plan(1905-12)399

The German advance on Paris400

Failure of the German plan401

Joffre resumes the offensive，The Battle of the Marne402

Stale-mate in the West405

Causes of German defeat406

Ⅱ．1915：Falkenhayn＇s plan407

Mackensen＇s offensives in Poland and Serbia408

British failure at the Dardanelles409

Ⅲ．1916-17：Falkenhayn attacks Verdun410

The Franco-British offensive on the Somme，Brussilov＇s Offensive in the east411

Germans invade Rumania，Battle of Jutland412

Germany decides on unrestricted submarine warfare413

America enters the War414

Mutiny in the French Army，British offensive at Passchendaele，The Mesopotamian campaign416

Russian Revolution，Italian defeat at Caporetto417

Lloyd George and Clemenceau in power418

Ⅳ．1918：Ludendorff＇s plan for 1918418

Allied Supreme War Council，German offensive419

Foch and the German offensive420

Ludendorff on the Lys and Chemin des Dames421

Foch＇s plans for an offensive422

Ludendorff＇s collapse，Franchet-Desperey＇s offensive at Salonica423

Germany sues for peace424

Causes of German defeat，The part of the United States in the War425

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩTHE PARIS CONFERENCE AND THE TREATY WITH GER-MANY，1919426

The‘Big Four＇426

The basis of the Peace Treaty，Wilson and the League428

Mandates and League Organisation429

The Rhineland430

The Polish Frontier，Czechoslovakia431

Disarmament432

Division of the German colonies，The Penal Clauses433

Reparations434

The Reparation Commission435

‘War Guilt，＇436

Signature of the Treaty437

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅪNATION-MAKING IN THE NEW EUROPE438

Ⅰ．Central Europe：Basis of the Treaties of St．Germain and Trianon438

End of the Dual Monarchy，Czechoslovakia439

Italian gains in the Tyrol440

The new Yugoslavia，Rumania441

Effect of the Treaty of Trianon on Central Europe442

Ⅱ．The Baltic：Rise of the Baltic States443

Poland and Russia444

The Battle of Warsaw(10 August 1920)，Poland＇s eastern frontier445

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅫWORLD SETTLEMENT AND NATION-MAKING IN THE NEAR，MIDDLE AND FAR EAST446

Bulgaria and Greece446

Treaty of Sèvres(10 August 1920)，Mustafa Kemal and the‘Angora Pact，＇447

King Constantine attacks Mustafa Kemal，Rout of the Greeks，Lloyd George and the Straits448

Treaty of Lausanne(24 July 1923)448

Mustafa Kemal and the new Turkey449

Armenian massacres，The Republic of Erivan450

Arabs and Turks，The Grand Sheriff of Mecca，Hussein＇s overture to England451

The Arab revolt，Lawrence and the Arabs，Fall of Damascus(October 1918)453

Syria，Palestine and Iraq454

Hussein driven from Mecca，Ibn Saud，King of Arabia，Persia under Reza Shah455

The Far East：Western influences in China，Japanese aggression against China，Japan＇s desire for economic expansion456

England termi-nates Anglo-Japanese alliance(1921)，Japanese policy457

PART ⅥTHE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY459

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅢMARXISM AND THE SOVIET UNION；ITALY AND GERMANY；BRITAIN AND FRANCE459

Ⅰ．MARXISM，ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION：Hébert，Babeuf459

French Secret Societies，Barbès and Blanqui460

Marx and Engels461

Communist Manifesto(1848)462

The Revolution of 1848463

Proudhon，The First International(1864)464

Marx and Bakunin465

The Paris Commune(1871)466

The Second International(1889)467

European Socialist Parties in 1914468

Lenin，The Third International(1919)469

Lenin and Trotsky，The Fourth International(1937)470

Ⅱ．THE SOVIET UNION FROM THE REVOLUTION TO 1939：The Russian Revolution，The Petrograd Soviet，Lenin returns from exile to lead the New Government of the Soviets(February 1917)，Treaty of Brest-Litovsk(March 1918)471

Civil War in Russia，Lenin＇s‘New Eco-nomic Policy，＇The Constitution of the U．S．S．R472

Opposition eliminated，Trotsky，The‘Purges＇of 1936-37473

The Russian Com-munist Party474

Achievements of the U．S．S．R475

Ⅲ．DICTATORSHIPS IN ITALY AND GERMANY：The Authoritarian State476

Characteristics of the Dictatorships in Italy and Germany477

Origins of the race theory，Gobineau and Houston Chamberlain478

The effect of the first World War on individual freedom479

Ⅳ．ITALY FROM THE RISORGIMENTO TO THE WAR OF 1914：The Italian Constitution480

Economic depression，Deprétis and Crispi481

Italian colonial ventures，Adowa(1 March 1896)，Disorders in Italy，Seizure of Tripoli(1911)482

The War of 1914，Rout at Caporetto(1917)483

Ⅴ．ITALY FROM GIOLITTI TO MUSSOLINI，1920-39：Seizure of Fiume，Giolitti484

Fascist March on Rome(October 1922)，Fascist Party and Principles485

Concordat with the Vatican(11 February 1929)486

Constitution of Italy487

Racial policy488

Ⅵ．GERMANY FROM THE VERSAILLES TREATY TO HITLER，1919-33：Aftermath of war488

Weimar Republic489

Hindenburg President(1925)490

Origins of Nazism，Mein Kampf491

Anti-semitism，Hitler＇s economic programme492

Rise of the Nazi Party493

Hitler Chancellor(January 1933)494

Ⅶ．HITLER：Suppression of opposition，Putsch of June 1934494

Domestic policy，The Church and the Nazi State495

Religious persecution，Persecution of Jews495

The Totalitarian State497

Ⅷ．GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE：Bury on freedom(1913)497

Restrictions on freedom of opinion after 1914498

Disadvantages of Parliamentary Government499

France between the wars，Defects of the French Constitution500

Rule by Decree，Croix de Feu and Front Populaire501

Collapse of the Third Republic(10 July 1940)502

Cabinet Government in England503

Stability of British Common-wealth504

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅣCO-OPERATION AND CONFLICT，1920-39504

Ⅰ．THE POWERS AND THE LEAGUE，1920-38：Early activities of the League，The Corfu Incident(1923)505

The Locarno Agreements(1925)506

The Kellogg Pact(1928)，Disarmament507

Japan and Manchuria(1931-33)，Japan＇s withdrawal from the League(1933)，Sino-Japanese War(1937)508

Failure of disarmament(1934)，Germany leaves the League(October 1933)，Franco-Soviet Pact(2 May 1935)509

Italy＇s attack on Abyssinia，German re-occupation of Rhineland(7 March 1936)，and its effects510

Spain 1930-36511

Spanish Civil War(1936-39)，‘Non-intervention，＇512

Conference of Nyon(September 1937)，The League and the Spanish Civil War513

Ⅱ．HILTER＇S DRIVE TO THE EAST，1938：Hitler＇s demand for Colonies，Neville Chamberlain and the Covenant514

Anschluss(March 1938)，Anti-Comintern Pact，Rome-Berlin Axis515

Encirclement of Czechoslovakia，Czech Frontiers of 1919516

Sudeten Germans517

Czech domestic policy，Treatment of minorities518

Economic and political factors519

Foreign policy of Benes(1919-33)520

Crisis of May 1938521

Sokol display in Prague(July 1938)，Sudeten threats of secession，Attitude of France and Russia522

England and Czecho-slovakia，Frontier incidents，Hitler＇s demands523

Four Power con-ference，Munich Agreement(September 29)524

Aftermath of Munich525

Ⅲ．FROM MUNICH TO THE WAR OF 1939：Anglo-German declaration(September 30)525

Britain and Germany，The Colonial question526

Italy＇s demands，Internal strife in France527

Persecution of Jews in Germany，Destruction of Czechoslovakia528

Its effects，Britain＇s pledge to Poland，Memel ceded to Germany529

Italy seizes Albania，Roosevelt＇s appeal530

Conscription in Britain，German-Polish tension531

Russo-German Pact(23 August 1939)533

Russia，France and Britain533

Danzig，Final stage of Polish crisis535

Outbreak of War536

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅤEUROPE AT WAR，1939-45536

1939：Extent of the War and its influence on European State System536

Campaign in Poland(September)，4th Partition of Poland(September 28)538

Western Front539

Baltic States，Russo-Finnish War(November)540

1940：Norwegian campaign(April-June)540

German invasion of Low Countries and France(10 May)541

Battle of France，Italy enters the War(10 June)，Fall of Paris(14 June)542

France sues for armistice，French Fleet，Terms of Franco-German and Franco-Italian armistices543

War at sea(1939-40)544

Battle of Britain545

War in the Balkans(October 1940-May 1941)546

1941：Near and Middle East，Malta547

Battle for Egypt(September 1940-March 1941)，British conquest of East Africa(July 1940-November 1941)，Axis victories in N．Africa(March 1941-July 1942)549

German attack on Russia(22 June)and rapid German advance(June-December)550

1942：German armies reach the Volga and Don(August)551

Battle of Stalingrad(November 1942-January 1943)，America and the war553

Lease-Lend Act(11 March 1941)，America and Japan，Pearl Harbour(7 December 1941)554

America and Japan enter the War，Allied disasters in the Far East555

1943：North African Campaigns(October 1942-May 1943)556

Mediterranean theatre，Invasion of Italy，Fall of Mussolini，Italian armistice(3 September558

Italian campaign(September 1943-May 1945)558

Russian Front(February 1943-April 1944)，Russian advance approaches Germany560

Allied Air-offensive against Germany，1942-44，German‘V＇weapons561

1944：Invasion of western Europe(6 June)562

Battle of Falaise，Liberation of Paris(25 August)，Invasion of southern France(15 Liberation of Paris(25 August)，Invasion of southern France(15 August)，Liberation of Brussels(3 September)563

Allies enter the Saar564

The Eastern Front：Finnish Armistice(19 September)，Russian advance in Baltic countries564

Allied victories in the Balkans565

German Counter-offensive in the Ardennes(December)565

1945：Crossing of the Rhine(7 March)，Final offensives from east，west and south，Capture of Berlin by Russians(2 May)566

German capitulation(7 May)567

Far East，1945-45：Offensive and Counter-offensive in Burma(February 1944-May 1945)，Re-conquest of Pacific islands567

U．S．troops approach Japan，Capture of Iwojima(March 1945)and Okinawa(June 1945)，Air-offensive against Japan，Potsdam Declaration(26 July 1945)，Russia declares War on Japan(8 August)，Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima(6 August)and Nagasaki(9 August)，Japanese capitulation(14 August)568

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅥTHE POLITICAL STATE OF EUROPE，1945-50569

Political balance in Europe，The Atlantic Chater(August 1941)569

Italy：drafting of the Italian peace treaty and its terms(10 February 1947)570

Austria：Allied intentions to re-establish an independent Austria，Administration of Austria，Allied attempts and failure to draft a peace treaty571

Germany：‘Unconditional surrender，＇572

Allied decisions on Germany＇s future，Partition into Zones573

The Potsdam Agreement，Failure of Allied control machinery574

The two German Republics575

Eastern Europe：Treaties of Peace between the Allies and Hungary，Bulgaria and Rumania(10 February 1947)，Poland575

Czechoslovakia，Yugoslavia，Finland577

Western Europe：Marshall Aid Plan，The Atlantic Treaty(4 April 1949)577

Fourth French Republic(24 December 1946)，Council of Europe578

Far East：Japan deprived of her conquests，Victory of Communists in China578

EPILOGUE579

MOVEMENTS FOR PEACE IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES：Ideas of Czar Alexander I，Castlereagh＇s idea of a Congress579

Alexander and European Unity(1818)，The National ideal580

Clarendon and mediation，Growth of the practice of arbitration，The Hague Conferences(1899 and 1907)581

The League of Nations，and its failure583

Plans for a new international organisation，Dum-barton Oaks Conferences(August-October 1944)，San Francisco Con-ference(April-June 1945)，United Nations Charter and agencies，The Charter and the Covenant583

INDEX587