《JEWISH LAW AND DECISION MAKING A STUDY THROUGH TIME》求取 ⇩

Introduction3

Approaches to Jewish Law3

The Value of Comparative Judaic Law Studies7

Problems and Methodology in the Study of Ancient Law8

Part One Law in the Ancient Near East,2200 B.C.E.—350 B.C.E.11

Ⅰ.THE SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST13

A.REGIONAL CONTEXTS13

1.Introduction13

2.The Development of Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilizations13

3.Ethnic Movements and Power Alignments among the Nation-States of the Ancient Near East14

4.Power Processes and Alignments among the Ancient Nation-States17

5.The Common Law, Culture, and Languages of Western Asia18

B.NATIONAL CONTEXTS: THE INTERNAL POWER STRUCTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATION-STATES19

1.The Interrelationship of Religion, Power, and Law in the Ancient World19

a.Polytheistic Religions in the Ancient Near East19

b.The Earthly State as Part of the Polytheistic Cosmic Power Structure19

c.The Sharing of Power by King and Assembly20

d.The City-States21

e.The Role and Status of Law in Mesopotamian Society21

f.The Role and Status of Law in the Egyptian State22

g.The Persian State23

2.Other Social Contexts of Law23

a.Class Structure and the Economy23

（1） Mesopotamia23

（2） Egypt24

b.Miscellaneous Social Contexts24

Ⅱ.BIBLICAL LAW IN CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVE26

A.AN OVERVIEW OF JEWISH HISTORY IN THE BIBLICAL ERA26

1.Sources of Jewish Biblical History26

2.The Early Hebrews27

3.The Patriarchs27

4.The Bondage in Egypt27

5.The Exodus from Egypt and the Sinai Covenant28

6.The Conquest of the Land of Canaan28

7.The Era of the Judges29

8.The Monarchy in Israel29

a.The First King29

b.The Davidic Dynasty30

c.The Internal Power Structure of the Davidic Monarchy31

9.The Division of the Jewish State: Judah and Israel31

10.Royal Rule in Judah and Israel32

11.The Rise of Assyria and Babylonia and the Demise of the Northern Jewish State32

12.The Destruction of Judah and of the Temple34

13.The Babylonian Exile and the Return to Judea34

B.THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS OF BIBLICAL LAW: THE PRE- PENTATEUCHAL BASIS OF POST-PENTA- TEUCHAL PRACTICES35

1.The Cultural Contexts35

2.The Economic Framework36

3.The Social Structure37

C.THE EFFECT OF MESOPOTAMIAN AND EGYPTIAN CULTURES ON BIBLICAL LAW37

D.STUDIES IN BIBLICAL LEGAL DOCUMENTS39

1.Introduction to Selections from the Torah （the Pentateuch）39

2.Selections from the Torah （Pentateuch）39

a.Genesis39

（1） Homicide, Repentance, and Punishment （Genesis 4:8-16）40

（2） A Reckoning for Life （Genesis 9:1-6）41

b.Exodus42

（1） The Institution of Courts among the Israelites （Exodus 18:13-27）42

（2） The Giving of the Law at Mt.Sinai （Exodus 19:1-25）42

（3） The Decalogue （Exodus 20:1-18）43

（4） Injury to Persons or Property （Exodus 21:12-37）44

（5） Theft and Other Tortious Damage （Exodus 22:1-26）46

（6） Carrying Out Justice, Obli- gations to the Poor, and Other Miscellaneous Norms （Exodus 23:1-12）47

（7） The Covenant with God to Accept the Law （Exodus 24:3-8, 12-18）47

c.Leviticus48

（1） Avoiding Practices Abhorrent to God （Leviticus 18:27-30）48

（2） Attaining Holiness； Conduct toward One’s Fellows （Leviticus 19:1-4, 9-18, 29, 32-37）48

（3） A People Apart in Holiness （Leviticus 20:22-26）49

（4） Tortious Injuries （Leviticus 24:17-22）49

d.Numbers49

（1） Cities of Refuge （Numbers 35:9-34）49

e.Deuteronomy52

（1） Establishing Courts and Criminal Procedure （Deuter- onomy 16:18-20, 17:2-13）52

（2） Kingship （Deuteronomy 17:14-20）53

（3） The Unwitting Manslayer and False Witnesses （Deuteronomy 19:1-13, 15-21）54

（4） Absolution from Guilt for Homicide （Deuteronomy 21:1-9, 22-23）55

（5） Individual Dignity and Responsibility （Deuteronomy 24:6-17）56

（6） Limitations on Flogging （Deuteronomy 25:1-3）56

（7） Helping a Victim of Unjust Aggression （Deuteronomy 25:11-12）57

E.STUDIES IN NONBIBLICAL LEGAL DOCUMENTS57

1.Cuneiform Law and the History of Civilization （by E.A.Speiser）57

2.Authority and Law in Ancient Egypt （by John A.Wilson）63

3.Early Law and Civilization （by E.A. Speiser）66

4.Cuneiform Codes72

a.The Code of Hammurabi （trans- lated by Theophile J.Meek）72

b.The Laws of Ur-Nammu （trans- lated by J.J.Finkelstein）83

c.Lipit-Ishtar Law Code （translated by S.N.Kramer）85

d.The Laws of Eshnunna （trans- lated by Albrecht Goetze）88

e.The Middle Assyrian Laws （translated by Theophile J.Meek）91

f.The Hittite Laws （translated by Albrecht Goetze）95

g.Law in the Ancient Near East （by J.J.Finkelstein）99

F.A COMPARISON OF JEWISH AND CUNEI- FORM CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES102

1.Bible and Babel: A Comparative Study of the Hebrew and Babylonian Religious Spirit （by J.J.Finkel- stein）102

2.“Babel-Bible”: A Mesopotamian View （by J.J.Finkelstein）115

3.The Problem of the Prologue and Epilogue to the Book of the Cove- nant （by S.Paul）120

4.Other Comparisons between Biblical and Mesopotamian Legal Perspec- tives122

Ⅲ.BIBLICAL AND CUNEIFORM LEGAL SYSTEMS IN OPERATION: AUTHORI- TATIVE DECISION-MAKING IN BIBLICAL AND CUNEIFORM LAW124

A.THE MAKING OF THE LAW: WHO PRESCRIBED THE LAW?124

1.The King124

a.The Manner of the King （by E.A.Speiser）124

b.The Edict of Ammisaduqa （translated by J.J.Finkelstein）127

2.The Community130

a.Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia （by Thorkild Jacobsen）130

B.THE APPLICATION OF THE LAW136

1.Introduction136

2.The Courts136

a.King Hammurapi as Judge （by W.F.Leemans）136

b.Courts in the Biblical Era: The Judicial Role of the Biblical King139

c.Application of the Law by Priests140

3.The Role of the Tribe and Family in Applying Criminal Sanctions140

a.The Biblical Conception of Asylum （by Moshe Greenberg）140

4.Criminal Sanctions143

a.Some Postulates of Biblical Criminal Law （by Moshe Greenberg）143

b.Reflections on Biblical Criminal Law （by Bernard S.Jackson）151

5.Case Studies in Criminal Law158

a.Murder and Accidental Death158

（1） Avenger of Blood （by Moshe Greenberg）158

（2） Banishment （by Moshe Greenberg）158

（3） Blood Guilt （by Moshe Greenberg）159

（4） City of Refuge （by Moshe Greenberg）160

b.An Ancient Mesopotamian Trial for Homicide （by T.Jacobsen）161

6.Rape, Adultery, and Seduction163

a.Sex Offenses in Sumerian Laws （by J.J.Finkelstein）163

b.A Textbook Case of Adultery in Ancient Mesopotamia （by Samuel Greengus）171

7.Assault174

a.An Eye for an Eye （by A.S. Diamond）174

8.Other Criminal Trials177

a.Results of a Trial for Conspiracy （in Egypt） （by J.Pritchard）177

Part Two Talmudic Law in the Eras of the Second Jewish Commonwealth, Ancient Greece, the Hellenist States, Rome, and the Early Middle Ages, 350 B.C.E.-630 C.E.181

Ⅳ.HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO TALMUDIC LAW183

A.THE HELLENIST MILIEU183

1.The Macedonian and Greek Conquest of the Orient183

2.The External Power Alignments of the Hellenist States183

3.Cultural and Religious Perspectives in the Hellenist Near East183

B.JEWISH HISTORY IN THE HELLENIST ERA: AN OVERVIEW184

1.Judea under the Ptolemies and Seleucids184

2.The Effect of Hellenist Culture on the Jews184

3.The Hasmonean Revolt185

4.Roman Rule of Judea186

5.The Destruction of the Second Jewish Commonwealth and Temple186

6.The Bar Kokhba Revolt186

7.The Spread of Christianity187

8.The Jews in Egypt187

C.INTERNAL POWER BLOCS IN JUDEA DURING THE SECOND COMMONWEALTH188

1.The Supreme Judicial-Legislative Body188

2.The Priesthood188

3.The Pharisees188

4.The Sadducees189

5.The Essenes189

6.The Army189

D.THE JEWS IN BABYLONIA: DEMO- GRAPHIC, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS189

Ⅴ.TALMUDIC LAW IN GENERAL: THE EFFECT OF CULTURAL AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ON TALMUDIC LAW191

A.GENERAL CONCEPTIONS OF LAW AND AUTHORITY191

1.The Torah before the Creation of the World （Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat88b）191

2.Talmudic Legal Perspectives191

3.The Oral Law （by Moshe ben Maimon）197

4.The Oral Law and Its Relation to the Written Law （by Z.H.Chajes）200

B.APPLYING THE LAW: PRINCIPLES OF LEGAL INTERPRETATION204

1.The Thirteen Canons of Scriptural Interpretation204

2.The Hermeneutic Principles and Their Application （by Bernard Rosenzweig）205

C.ADJUSTMENTS IN THE LAW TO MEET CRISES AND CHANGED CONDITIONS: DOCUMENTARY STUDIES211

1.The Law Is Not in Heaven （Baba Metzia 59b, 86a）211

2.Moses as the Source of All Law （Menakhot 29b）215

3.The Power to Abrogate the Law （Yebamot 89b）216

4.The Institution of the Prusbul by Hillel （Gittin 36a）221

5.Adjustments in Family Law223

Ⅵ.THE LEGAL SYSTEM IN OPERATION226

A.JEWISH LOSS OF POWER AND EXILE: THE IMPACT ON JEWISH LAW OF EXISTING IN AN ALIEN AUTHORITY AND POWER SYSTEM226

1.Non-Jews as the Source of Power for Jewish Decision-Makers: Changes from a Hierarchical Authority and Power System to a Dual-Co-Archical System226

2.The Internal Power Structure: Authoritative Decision-Making after the Second Jewish Commonwealth； Institutional Patterns and Participants226

3.Jewish Decision-Making in a Dual Authority System227

a.Early Palestine and Babylonia227

b.Reduction in Jewish Power Resulting from the Destruction of the Second Jewish State and Temple227

c.Roman Palestine: The Patri- archate228

d.Persian and Parthian Babylonia: The Exilarchate229

e.Comparisons of Decision-Making Powers of the Exilarch and the Nasi231

f.The Effects of Non-Jewish Authority Systems on Jewish Law232

（1） The Exilarchate and Patri- archate232

（2） Incorporating Non-Jewish Norms into Jewish Law233

（3） Religious Perspectives Concerning the Authority of a Jewish Royal Agent to Impose Biblically Pro- hibited Sanctions234

g.Notions of Authority and Control235

B.PARTICIPANTS IN THE LEGAL PROCESS: DECISION-MAKING BY PRESCRIBERS AND APPLIERS236

1.The King236

2.The Judicial System237

a.The High Court （Sanhedrin） during the Second Jewish Commonwealth237

b.Jewish Courts after the Destruc- tion of the Second Jewish Commonwealth239

c.Lower Courts of Twenty-three Judges and of Three Judges239

d.One-Judge Courts241

e.Appellate Review241

f.Other Superior Courts241

g.Courts o f Special Jurisdiction242

h.Lay Courts242

i.Jewish Courts in Babylonia244

3.The Academies of Law and Reli- gion headed by the Gaonim244

4.Lay Decision-Makers245

a.Perspectives Concerning Deci- sion-Making by the Lay Communal Polity245

b.Lay Communal Decision- Making in the Roman Empire248

c.Lay Communal Decision- Making in Roman Palestine248

C.DOCUMENTARY STUDIES IN CRIMINAL LAW249

1.General Attitudes: The Sanctity and Dignity of Life249

a.Laws Concerning a Murderer and the Preservation of Life （by Moshe ben Maimon）249

2.Criminal Procedure: Rights of the Criminal Defendant260

a.Selections from the Talmud, Sanhedrin, Chapter 1（Mishnah Ⅳ）260

b.Selections from the Talmud, Sanhedrin, Chapter 4 （Mishnah Ⅰ-Ⅳ）261

c.Selections from the Talmud, Sanhedrin, Chapter 4 （Mishnah Ⅴ）263

d.The Talmudic Prototype of Rodef （Sanhedrin 49a）265

e.Obstacles to, and Views Con- cerning, Capital Punishment in Talmudic Law （Makkot 6b and 7a）265

f.The Trial of a Capital Case （by Moshe ben Maimon）267

D.THE RATIONALE OF SANCTIONING275

1.Punishment and Deterrence （Maimonides, Guide for the Per- plexed 3:41）275

2.Atonement （S.R.Hirsch, Com- mentary on Genesis 9:6）276

E.AN APPRAISAL OF THE FUNCTION OF THE JUDICIARY IN MAINTAINING PUBLIC ORDER AND IMPOSING CRIMINAL SANCTIONS277

Part Three Jewish Law in the Middle Ages （post 630 C.E.）281

Ⅶ.POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF JEWISH DECISION-MAKING IN THE MIDDLE AGES283

A.JEWS IN CHRISTIAN AND ISLAMIC COUNTRIES283

B.THE CHURCH AND THE JEWS IN WESTERN EUROPE284

C.CHANGES IN THE JEWISH CONDITION IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES285

1.Economic Changes and Jewish Population Shifts285

2.The Growth of Jewish Legal and Religious Culture in the West286

3.The Urbanization of Jewish Life in Europe286

4.Increased Jewish Commercial Activity287

5.The Political and Power Status of Jews in Medieval Europe287

D.THE CRUSADES287

E.THE EFFECTS OF THE CRUSADES288

1.Changes in the Economic Position of the Jews288

2.The Degraded Social Position of the Jews289

F.THE GROWTH OF JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN POLAND289

G.THE SPANISH INQUISITION AND EXPULSION FROM SPAIN290

H.EFFECTS OF THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION ON JEWISH LIFE291

I.THE END OF JEWISH COMMUNAL AUTONOMY AND THE IMPOSITION OF THE GHETTO291

Ⅷ.THE JEWISH LEGAL SYSTEM IN OPERATION292

A.JEWISH COMMUNAL AUTONOMY AND DECISION-MAKING292

1.Societal Contexts of Jewish Communal Decision-Making292

a.The Mediterranean Lands in General294

b.Spain294

c.Northern Europe294

d.Poland and Lithuania295

e.The Near East under Islam296

（1） Jewish Authoritarian Leadership296

（2） The Exilarchate and the Gaonate （Deanship of the Law Academies）297

f.Other Social Contexts of Jewish Decision-Making298

2.Documentary Studies of Autonomous Jewish Communal Decision-Making298

a.An Old Medieval Form forAppointing a Jewish CommunalLeader and Decision-Maker（by Judah Al-Barceloni）298

b.Regional and TranscommunalDecision-Making299

（1） Southern Europe300

（a） Portugal300

（b） Spain300

（c） The Ordinances of theSynod at Valladolid,Spain （1432）300

（2） Northern Europe306

（a） Synods and ChiefRabbis: France,Germany, and England306

（b） The Ordinances of theFranco-German Synodat Troyes （1150）307

（c） Takkanot （by M.Elon）308

（3） Poland and Lithuania309

（4） Central Europe311

（5） Summary311

B.PARTICIPANTS IN JEWISH DECISION-MAKING312

1.The Constitutive Scheme of JewishCommunal Decision-Making:Participants and Institutions312

a.Lay Communal Decision-Making312

（1） Perspectives ConcerningLimitations on CommunalAuthority312

（2） The Scope of CommunalDecision-Making312

（a） Taxation and EconomicRegulation312

（b） Exclusion of New-comers313

（c） MiscellaneousPrescriptions313

（d） Changes in TraditionalLaw313

（3） The Relationship of LawCommunal Decision-Makingto Traditional JewishDecision-Making314

（4） Takkanot ha’Kahal（by M.Elon）315

（5） Procedures and Institutionsin Lay Decision-Making316

（a） The Lay Electorate316

（b） Communal Ofcials316

b.The Role of the Academies inDecision-Making317

（1） Education318

（2） The Academy Courts318

（3） The Gaonic Responsa,Treatises, and Prescriptions318

（4） The Academies versus the Exilarchate319

（5） Sources of Income of the Babylonian Academies320

（6） The Final Decline of the Exilarchate and Gaonate320

c.The Scholar-Religious Leader as Decision-Maker320

（1） The Payment of Compensa- tion to Scholar-Religious Leaders321

（2） Sources of Income of the Salaried Community Rabbis322

（3） The Community Rabbi as Decision-Maker323

（4） Selecting the Community Rabbi325

d.Conflicts and Sharing o f Decision- Making Powers between Rabbis and Lay Leaders327

（1） Rabbi-Scholar Approval and Veto of Lay Communal Prescriptions327

（2） Rabbinic Nullification of Communal Enactments； Majority Rule and Minority Rights328

（3） Interpretation of Communal Prescriptions by Rabbis and Scholars329

（4） Bases of Lay Power330

（5） Communal Prescriptions for the Allocation of Power among Laymen and Rabbis331

（6） The Role of the Community Proletariat in Decision- Making333

（7） Communal Control by Lay Oligarchies333

2.Jewish Courts in the Middle Ages: A Documentary Study335

a.Communal Prescriptions for Judicial Systems336

（1） The Ordinances of the Jewish Community of Moravia （Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries）336

（2） The Ordinances of the Jewish Community of Mantova, Italy （1677）341

b.The Selection and Removal of Jewish Judges344

c.The Compensation of Judges346

d.The Composition and Number of Judges of Jewish Courts346

e.The Community Rabbi as Judge347

f.Jewish Courts in Suburban and Rural Areas347

g.Appellate Courts348

h.Lay Courts350

i.Merchant and Guild Lay Courts351

j.Intercommunity Courts for Communal and Private Disputes351

k.Compelling Compliance with Court Subpoenas353

l.Ex Parte Hearings354

Ⅸ.ADJUSTING THE LAW TO MEET CHANGED CONDITIONS355

A.THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LEGAL INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES355

1.Changes in Family Law355

2.Judicial Procedure356

3.Residential and Mercantile Protec- tions and Restrictions356

4.Law Enforcement Officials356

B.NEW FORMS OF AUTHORITATIVE PRESCRIPTIONS AND DECISIONS FOR A DISPERSED JEWRY357

1.The Shulhan Aruk: Enduring Code of Jewish Law （by Isadore Twersky）357

2.Origins and Development of the Responsa by S.Freehoff）366

C.ADJUSTING CRIMINAL LAW TO CRISES AND NEW CONDITIONS IN THE TALMUDIC ERA AND MIDDLE AGES375

1.Documentary Case Studies of Extraordinary Sanctions in the Talmudic Era, Uncalled for by Traditional Legal Doctrines375

a.The Hanging of the Witches （Sanhedrin 45b）476

b.Amputating the Arm of an Assaulter （Sanhedrin 58b）376

c.Blinding a Murderer （Sanhedrin 27a-27b）376

d.Execution without Trial by a Court: Death by Feeding； Execution by the Temple Priests （Sanhedrin 81b）376

2.Documentary Case Studies of Extraordinary Sanctions in the Middle Ages378

a.Imposing Sanctions Not Authorized by Law （by Josef Karo）378

b.Informers379

（1） The Practice Concerning Informers （by Moshe ben Maimon）379

（2） Disposing of an Informer （by Asher ben Yehiel）379

（3） A Case Concerning an Informer （by Shlomo ben Aderet and Meir ben Baruch of Rothenberg）380

c.Murder385

（1） Sanctions for Homicide （by Judah ben Asher）385

（2） Criminal Procedure （by Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet）386

（a） Admissibility of Confessions387

（b） Providing an Attorney for a Defendant387

（c） Freeing a Defendant on Bail388

（d） Accepting Testimony in the Absence of the Accused388

（e） The Legal Rationale for Capital Punishment389

（3） Representation by Attorneys in Jewish Courts391

d.Punishing a Blasphemer （by Asher ben Yehiel）393

e.Punishing a Fornicator （by Asher ben Yehiel）393

f.Imprisoning a Thief on Circum- stantial Evidence （by Shimon ben Tsemah Duran）394

g.Communal Criminal Law Prescriptions394

（1） Ordinances of the Jewish Community of Cracow, Poland （circa 1595 et seq.）394

（2） Sanctions Imposed by the Portuguese Jewish Commu- nity in Hamburg, Germany （1655-1670）395

3.Precedents, Principles, and Rationales for ExtraordinarySanctions and Adjustments in the Law396

a.Biblical Authority396

b.Legal Principles397

c.Rationales398

4.The Imposition in Practice of Extraordinary Sanctions Contrary to Traditional Norms400

a.The Biblical Era400

b.The Talmudic Era401

5.Sanctions in the Middle Ages402

a.Capital Punishment402

b.The Manner of Inflicting the Death Penalty405

c.Permissible Slaying of “Innocent” Persons405

（1） In Order to Sancify （or Not to Disgrace） the Lord, or to Strengthen the Faith406

（2） Choice of Life Situations, or the Preservation of Many Lives406

d.Gouging of Eyes and Amputation of Limbs407

e.Branding409

f.Flogging410

（1） As a Penalty410

（2） In the Middle Ages410

（3） Procedure for Flogging411

（4） Extraordinary Flogging412

（5） Flogging of Women412

g.Imprisonment412

（1） As a Penalty413

（2） To Ensure Appearance at Trial or for Sentencing414

（3） As a Means of Coercion414

（4） For Debt414

h.House Arrest417

i.Excommunication417

j.Banishment418

k.Expulsion from the Synagogue419

l.Humiliation420

（1） By Public Announcement420

（2） By Shaving the Head and Beard420

m.Deprivation of Rights and Privileges421

n.Denial of the Right to Engage in Certain Occupations421

o.The “Donkey’s Burial”421

p.Fines, Levies, and Confiscation of Property422

6.Appraisal of the Perspectives, Social Contexts, and Outcomes of Extraor- dinary Sanctioning by Jewish Decision-Makers422

Index427