《geochemistry》

WHAT IS GEOCHEMISTP.Y？1

HISTORICAL OUTLINE8

INTRODUCTION12

PART Ⅰ. GENERAL GEOCHEMISTRY17

1.COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF METEORITES17

Meteoritics and Geochemistry17

Mineral Constituents of Meteorites19

Petrographic Classification of Meteorites23

Average Composition of the Various Meteorite Types25

The Sulfide Phase of the Meteorites27

Average Composition of All Meteorites28

Appendix Tektites30

2.ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS AND NUCLIDES32

Abundance Calculations32

The Abundance and Structure of the Atomic Nucleus48

Some Concepts and Definitions Pertaining to the Atomic Nucleus49

Abundance of the Nuclides51

Abundance Calculations Based on the Mass Number63

Abundance Calculations Based on the Neutron Number66

Nuclides Not Found in Nature66

Origin of the Abundance Distribution of the Elements68

Abundance and Nuclear Transmutation71

3.GEOCHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH74

Introductory Remarks74

Hypothesis of Washington75

Hypothesis of Goldschmidt76

Discussion76

The Core77

The Mantle78

The Crust81

Hypothesis of Kuhn and Rittmann82

4.DISTRIBUTION OF THE ELEMENTS AMONG THE GEOCHEMICAL SPHERES OF THE EARTH84

Geochemical Affinity84

Distribution of the Elements among Metal， Sulfide，and Silicate Phases85

Goldschmidt’s Geochemical Classification of the Elcments86

Probable Distribution of the Elements in the Earth92

5.GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE LITHOSPHERE94

Geochemical Characterization of the Elements in the Lithosphere94

Crystal Chemistry and Geochemistry103

Significance of Crystal Chemistry in Geochemistry103

Particle Size105

Co-ordination of the Particles112

Structural Classification of Silicate Minerals117

Isomorphism and Diadochy120

Camouflage， Capturing， and Admission of Trace Elements126

Crystallization of Magmas and Its Products128

Composition of Magmas and of Igneous Rocks128

Igneous and Quasi-igneous Rocks128

Average Mineralogical Composition of Igneous Rocks129

The Most Important Rock-making Minerals of Igneous Rocks130

Feldspars131

Structure of the Feldspars131

The Feldspar Minerals and Their Chemical Composition135

The Plagioclase Series135

The Barium Feldspars137

The Potash Feldspars137

The Potash-Soda Feldspars137

Cations Accommodated in the Feldspar Structure138

Feldspathoids140

Pyroxenes and Amphiboles143

Structure of Pyroxenes and Amphiboles143

General Chemical Composition of Pyroxenes and Amphiboles144

Pyroxenes145

Amphiboles148

Olivines149

Quartz152

Micas152

Accessory Constituents of Igneous Rocks155

Chemical Differentiation of Igneous Rocks157

Early Magmatic Sulfides161

Early Magmatic Oxides164

Silicates Formed during the Early and Main Stages of Crystalliza-tion164

Sequence of Crystallization164

Crystal Chemical Discussion of the Course of Crystallization169

Effect of Co-ordination on the Migration Energy170

Effect of Ionic Size on the Migration Energy171

Effect of Ionic Charge on the Migration Energy172

Dark Constituents173

Light Constituents174

Alkalic Rocks175

Pegmatites177

Pneumatolytic and Hydrothermal Deposits182

Volcanic Emanations184

The Minor Cycle and Its Products189

The Exogenic Cycle of Matter189

Formation of Sediments191

Weathering191

Sedimentation195

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks196

Diagenesis196

Geochemical Classification of Sediments and of Their Derivatives197

Resistates200

Hydrolyzates202

Soils210

Oxidates212

Reduzates213

Precipitates215

Evaporates218

Total Quantity of the Sediments221

Chemical Differentiation during Sedimentation224

Role of Hydrogen-Ion Concentration in Geochemistry227

Role of Redox Potential in Geochemistry229

Role of Sorption in Geochemistry233

Base-Exchange Capacity of Clay Minerals241

The Major Cycle and Its Products243

The Major Cycle243

Metamorphic Changes in Rocks245

Metamorphism as a Geochemical Phenomenon248

Internal Metamorphism249

Metasomatic Metamorphism252

Endogenic Migration of Matter in the Lithosphere258

Granitization260

6.GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE HYDROSPHERE264

Occurrence and Amount of Water on the Earth264

Water in the Cavities of Minerals and Rocks266

Ground Water268

Spring Water269

Water in Lakes and Rivers270

Lake Water270

River Water271

Average Composition of Lake and River Water273

Mineral Springs and Hot Springs276

Water in Closed Basins281

The Dead Sea282

Searles Lake and Owens Lake284

The Great Salt Lake285

Sea Water286

Composition of Sea Water286

The Carbon Dioxide System in Sea Water292

Dist-ibution of Elements between Sediments and Sea Water294

Cycle of Dissolved Substances296

7.GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE300

Structure of the Atmosphere300

Composition of the Atmosphere304

Atmophile Character of Elements309

Temporary Constituents of the Atmosphere309

Rain Water311

Cycle of Water and Substances Dissolved Therein in the Atmosphere316

8.GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE BIOSPHERE319

The Biosphere as a Geochemical Sphere319

Biophile Character of the Elements322

Position of the Biological Elements in the Periodic Table324

The Average Chemical Composition of Living Matter324

Essential Elements in Plants and Animals329

Plants and Animals as Accumulators of Elements331

Photosynthesis335

Geochemical Role of Bacteria338

Organogenic Sediments or Bioliths342

Humus345

Coal349

Liptobioliths351

Petroleum351

Ozoeerite and Asphalt360

Natural Gas360

Biogeochemistry of the Sea363

The Anthroposphere365

9.COSMOCHEMISTRY AND GEOCHEMISTRY367

Scope of Cosmochemistry367

Comets and Meteors368

Internal Constitution of the Planets370

Planetary Atmospheres373

The Terrestrial Planets374

The Giant Planets377

Interstellar Matter381

10.OUTLINE OF THE GEOCHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH385

Introductory Remarks385

Pregeological Evolution of the Earth385

Formation and Evolution of the Lithosphere392

Formation and Evolution of the Atmosphere398

Formation and Evolution of the Hydrosphere403

Formation and Evolution of the Biosphere406

PART Ⅱ. MANNER OF OCCURRENCE OF THE ELEMENTS413

INTRODUCTION413

11.HYDROGEN415

Abundance and Geochemical Character415

Hydrogen in Igneons Rocks417

Hydrogen and Its Cycle in the Hydrosphere and Atmosphere418

Hydrogen in the Biosphere420

Deuterium420

12.THE ALKALI METALS：LITHIUM，SODIUM，POTASSIUM，RUBIDIUM，CESIUM422

Abundance and Geochemical Character422

Lithium in Igneous Rocks424

Cycle of Lithium428

Sodium and Potassium in Igneous Rocks429

Cycle of Sodium and Potassium431

Sodium and Potassium in the Evaporates433

Rubidium and Cesium in Igneous Rocks436

Cycle of Rubidium and Cesium440

The Alkali Metals in the Biosphere441

13.BERYLLIUM443

Abundance and General Geocchemical Character443

Beryllium in Igneous Rocks443

Cycle of Berylliun446

Biogeochemistry447

14.MAGNESIUM448

Abundance and Geochemical Character448

Magnesium Minerals448

Magnesium in Igneous Rocks450

Biogeochemistry of Magnesium452

Cycle of Magnesium453

Magnesium Carbonate455

15.THE ALKALINE-EARTH METALS：CALCIUM，STRONTIUM，BARIUM457

Abundance and Geochemical Character457

Calcium Minerals459

Calcium in Igneous Rocks461

Calcium in the Biosphere462

Cycle of Calcium463

Calcitic Limestones464

Strontium and Barium in Igneous Rocks470

Strontium Isotopes478

Strontium and Barium in the Biosphere479

Cycle of Strontium and Barium480

16.BORON485

Abundance and General Geochemical Character485

Boron in Igneous Rocks486

Biogeochemistry of Boron488

Cycle of Boron489

Boron in Evaporates494

17.ALUMINUM498

Abundance and General Geochemical Character498

Aluminum in Igneous Rocks499

Cycle of Aluminum502

Aluminum in the Biosphere505

Aluminum Ores506

18.THE RARE-EARTH METALS：SCANDIUM，YTTRIUM，THE LANTHANIDES508

The Group of the Rare-Earth Metals508

Abundance and Geochemical Character of the Rare-Earth Metals509

eandium in Igneous Rock511

Cycle of Scandium516

Yttrium and the Lanthanides517

Yttrium and the Lanthanides in Igneous Rocks518

Cycle of Yttrium and the Lanthanides528

Europium529

The Rare-Earth Metals in the Biosphere531

19.CARBON532

Abundance and Geochemical Character532

Carbon in Igneous Rocks533

Carbon in the Biosphere534

Cycle of Carbon535

Cycle of Carbon Dioxide between the Atmosphere and the Sea542

Changes Caused by Industrial Activity in the Carbon Dioxide Content of the Atmosphere545

Carbon Isotopes548

20.SILICON551

Abundance and General Geochemical Character551

Silicon in Igneous Rocks551

Biogeochemistry of Silicon553

Cycle of Silicon553

21.TITANIUM，ZIRCONIUM，HAFNIUM557

Abundance and Geochemical Character557

Titanium Minerals558

Titanium in Igneous Rocks561

Cycle of Titanium563

Titanium Ores563

Zirconium Minerals564

Zirconium in Igneous Rocks565

Cycle of Zirconium566

Zirconium Ores567

Hafnium567

Biogeochemistry of Titanium， Zirconium， and Hafnium569

22.THORIUM570

Abundance and Geochemical Character570

Thorium in Igneous Rocks571

Cycle of Thorium572

23.NITROGEN574

Abundance and General Geochemical Character574

Nitrogen in Igneous Rocks576

Cycle of Nitrogen577

Nitrogen and Its Cycle in the Biosphere580

24.PHOSPHORUS584

Abundance and General Geochemical Character584

Phosphorus in Igneous Rocks585

Phosphorus and Its Cycle in the Biosphere588

Cycle of Phosphorus589

Ores of Phosphorus593

25.VANADIUM594

Abundance and General Geochemical Character594

Vanadium in Igneous Rocks594

Vanadium Minerals of Secondary Origin597

Vanadium in the Biosphere598

Cycle of Vanadium599

Vanadium in Metamorphic Rocks602

Ores of Vanadium602

26.COLUMBIUM， TANTALUM604

Abundance and Geochemical Character604

Columbium and Tantalum in Igneous Rocks605

Cycle of Columbium and Tantalum609

27.OXYGEN610

Abundance and General Geochemical Character610

Oxygen in the Upper Lithosphere610

Oxygen in the Hydrosphere and the Atmosphere612

Fossil Oxygen615

Oxygen in the Biosphere617

Oxygen Isotopes618

28.CHROMIUM619

Abundance and General Geochemical Character619

Chromium in Igneous Rocks620

Cycle of Chromium623

Chromium Ores624

Biogeochemistry of Chromium624

29.MOLYBDENUM， TUNGSTEN625

Abundance and General Geochemical Character625

Molybdenum and Tungsten in Igneous Rocks626

Biogeochemistry of Molybdenum and Tungsten628

Cycle of Molybdenum and Tungsten628

Molybdenum and Tungsten Ores630

30.URANIUM632

Abundance and General Geochemical Character632

Uranium in Igneous Rocks633

Cycle of Uranium636

Biogeochemistry of Uranium637

Ores of Uranium638

31.MANGANESE640

Abundance and Geochemical Character640

Manganese Minerals641

Manganese in Igneous Rocks643

Cycle of Manganese647

Manganese in Metamorphic Rocks652

Manganese in the Biosphere653

Manganese Ores653

32.RHENIUM654

Abundance and Geochemical Character654

Rhenium in Igneous Rocks654

Cycle of Rhenium656

33.IRON657

Abundance and Geochemical Character657

Iron in Igneous rocks658

Iron in the Biosphere662

Cycle of Iron663

Iron Ores of Magmatic Origin669

Iron Ores of Sedimentary Origin672

34.COBALT，NICKEL677

Abundance and General Geochemical Character677

Cobalt and Nickel in Magmatic Sulfides678

Cobalt and Nickel in Igneous Rocks681

Cycle of Cobalt and Nickel683

Cobalt and Nickel in the Biosphere686

Ores of Cobalt and Nickel686

35.THE PLATINUM METALS688

Abundance and General Geochemical Character688

The Platinum Metals in Igneous Rocks689

Cycle， Ores， and Biogeochemistry of the Platinum Metals693

36.COPPER695

Abundance and General Geochemical Character695

Copper in Igneous Rocks； Copper Ores696

Cycle of Copper698

Biogeochemistry of Copper700

37.SILVER，GOLD702

Abundance and Geochemical Character702

Maaner of Occurrence in the Upper Lithosphere703

Cycle of Silver and Gold706

Manner of OccurTence in the Biosphere707

38.ZINC， CADMIUM708

Abundance an d Geochemical Character708

Manner of Occurrence in Igneous Rocks；Ores708

Cycle of Zinc and Cadmium712

Biogeochemistry of Zinc and Cadmium714

39.MERCURY715

Abundance and Geochemical Character715

Mercury in Igneous Rocks； Ores of Mercury715

Cycle of Mercury716

Mercury in the Biosphere718

40.GALLIUM，INLIUM，THALLIUM719

Abundance and General Geochemical Character719

Manner of Occurrence in Igneous Rocks； Ores720

Geochemical Cycles727

Biogeochemistry728

41.GERMANIUM，TIN，LEAD729

Abundance and General Geochemical Character729

Occurrence in the Upper Lithosphere；Ores730

Geochemical Cycle734

Biogeochemistry736

Lead Isotopes737

42.ARSENIC，ANTIMONY，BISMUTH738

Abundance and General Geochemical Character738

Manner of Occurrence in Igneous Rocks； Ores739

Geochemical Cycle741

Biogeohemistry742

43.SULFUR，SELENIUM，TELLURIUM743

Abundance and General Geochemical Character743

Sulfur in Igneous Rocks744

Selenium and Tellurium in Igneous Rocks746

Sulfur， Selenium， and Tellurium in the Biosphere747

Cycle of Sulfur749

Cycle of Selenium and Tellurium752

Ores of Sulfur，Selenium，and Tellurium754

44.THE HALOGENS：FLUORINE，CHLORINE，BROMINE，IODINE756

Abundance and General Geochemical Character756

The Halogens in Igneous Rocks757

Biogeochemistry of the Halogens761

Cycle of the Halogens762

45.THE INERT GASES770

Abundance and General Geochemical Character770

Helium771

Neon774

Argon776

Krypton777

Xenon777

46.SHORT-LIVED RADIOACTIVE AND ARTIFICIAL ELEMENTS778

The“Missmg”Elements779

Technetium779

Promethium780

Astatine780

Francium781

The Short-lived Members of the Three Natural Radioactive Series781

Polonium783

Radon783

Radium783

Actinium785

Protactinium786

The Transuranium Elements786

Neptunium787

Plutonium787

Americium788

Curium788

APPENDIXES790

1.THE PERIODIC SYSTEM OF THE ELEMENTS790

2.ATOMIC WEIGHTS FOR 1948792

3.ATOMIC AND IONIC RADII OF THE ELEMENTS794

4.THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF THE ELEMENTS796

5.GEODETIC AND OTHER TERRESTRIAL DATA798

6.GRAVIMETRIC CONVERSION FACTORS799

7.VARIOUS WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OR CONTENT，COMMONLY USED IN GEOCHEMICAL CALCULATIONS803

BIBLIOGRAPHY807

BIBLIOGRAPHY807

INDEXES841

AUTHOR INDEX841

SUBJECT INDEX848