《ENFORCEMENT OF MARITIME CLAIMS》

PART Ⅰ. JURISDICTION AND MODE OF ENFORCEABILITY1

CHAPTER 1. SOURCES OF ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION3

1. The Admiralty framework of the Supreme Court Act 19813

(Ⅰ) The list of claims (s.20)3

(Ⅱ) The "maritime lien" (s.21(3))4

(Ⅲ) Actions "in personam" and actions "in rem" (s.21)4

"Action in personam"5

The Supreme Court Act 19815

"Action in rem"5

The Supreme Court Act 19815

2. Sources outside the Supreme Court Act 19816

Admiralty, Common Law and Equity6

Common Law and Equity6

Equitable intervention in the Common Law7

The effect of registration requirement7

Admiralty8

Statutes, judicial creativity and Admiralty8

3. Conclusion9

CHAPTER2. THE NATURE OF MARITIME CLAIMS10

1. Heads of jurisdiction-the framework of the Supreme Court Act 198110

Section 20(l)(a), (2) (4) (5) (6)10

Section 20(l)(b), (3)10

Section 21(3)10

Section 20(1)(c)11

Section 20(1)(d)11

2. Application of the framework despite foreign connections (s.20(7))11

Jurisdiction11

Choice of law11

3. Jurisdiction based on the past and the future12

A. Looking to the past12

The "sweeping up" clause-jurisdiction "immediately before the commencement of this Act" (s.20(l)(c))12

Jurisdiction conferred specifically by the Act of 195612

"Damage received by a ship" (s.20(2)(e))12

The sweeping up provision of the Administration of Justice Act 195613

Jurisdiction conferred by statute13

Non-statutory jurisdiction ("that was vested" prior to 1st November 1875)13

Construction of heads of claim in Supreme Court Act 198113

Jurisdiction not referred to in Supreme Court Act 198113

B. Looking to the future14

Jurisdiction assigned to the Admiralty Court by Rules of Court (s.20(l)(d))14

4. Categories of enforceability14

Claims enforceable by action "in rem"15

（Ⅰ） Claims attracting maritime lien or "other charge"15

(a) Uncertainties of maritime liens16

(b) Foreign maritime liens16

(c) Maritime liens and extension of jurisdiction by statute16

(d) Established maritime liens17

(e) Statutory extensions by analogy30

(f) Claims in respect of which a maritime lien has been suggested31

(g) "Or other charge"33

（Ⅱ） Claims enforceable by action"in rem" against the relevant property or ownership of a share in a ship33

(a) Claim to ownership or possession of a ship or share in a ship (s.20(2) (a))33

(b) Any questions arising between co-owners of a ship as to possession, employment or earnings of the ship (s.20(2)(b), 20(4))34

(c) Any claim in respect of a mortgage of or charge on a ship or any share therein (s.20(2)(c), 20(7)(c))34

(d) Any claims for the forfeiture or condemnation of ship or goods, the restoration of ship or goods after seizure or droits of Admiralty (s.20(2)(s))35

（Ⅲ） Claims enforceable "in rem" against a ship or "sister ship" (s.20(2)(d)-(r))37

Jurisdiction and enforceability "in rem" compared37

(a) Any claim for damage received by a ship (s.20(2) (d))38

(b) Any claim for damage done by a ship (s.20(2)(e))39

(c) Any claim for loss of life or personal injury, etc. (s.20(2)(f))40

(d) Any claim for loss of or damage to goods carried in a ship (s.20(2)(g))41

(e) Any claim arising out of an agreement relating to the carriage of goods in a ship or to the use or hire of a ship (s.20(2) (h))44

(f) Any claim in the nature of salvage (s.20(2)(j))48

(g) Any claim in the nature of towage in respect of a ship (s.20(2)(k))49

(h) Any claim in the nature of pilotage in respect of a ship (s.20(2)(1))50

（Ⅰ） Any claim in respect of goods or materials supplied to a ship for her operation or maintenance (s.20(2) (m))50

(j) Any claim in respect of the construction, repair or equipment of a ship or in respect of dock charges or dues (s.20(2)(n))51

(k) Any claim by a master or member of the crew of a British or non-British ship for wages (including any sum allotted out of wages or adjudged by a superintendent to be due by wages)(ss.20(2)(o),and 24(2)(a))51

(l) Any claim by a master, shipper, charterer or agent in respect of disbursements made on account of a ship (s.20(2)(p))53

(m) Any claim arising out of an act which is or is claimed to be a general average act (s.20(2)(q))54

(n) Any claim arising out of bottomry (s.20(2) (r))55

Claims enforceable by action "in personam"55

Availability of action "in personam"55

Claims enforceable only by action in personam55

The categories of claim56

（Ⅰ） Any claim for damage received by a ship56

（Ⅱ） Any application in the High Court under the Merchant Shipping Acts 1894-1981 (s.20(l)(b) and 20(3)(a))56

（Ⅲ） "Collision" actions (s.20(l)(b) and 20(3)(b))56

（Ⅳ） Limitation actions (s.20(l)(b) and 20(3)(c))57

（Ⅴ） The sweeping up clause (s.20(1) (c))57

CHAPTER 3. ENFORCEMENT OF MARITIME CLAIMS BY AN ACTION "IN PERSONAM"58

1. Service of process and jurisdiction58

2. The claims for which an action "in personam" is available58

3. Nature of the action "in personam" as compared to the action "in rem"59

Security for the claim60

4. Commencement of the action "in personam"60

Through an action "in rem"61

Service of a writ "in personam" outside England62

Claims for which leave to "serve out" may be sought62

RSC Order 1162

RSC Order 7563

Discretion in granting the application63

RSC Order 1163

RSC Order 75, rule 464

5. Jurisdiction in actions "in personam"64

Submission to the jurisdiction65

(a) Through procedural steps65

(b) Through submission before the court65

(c) Through a "forum clause"65

The Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 198265

The EEC framework66

General jurisdiction rules66

Special jurisdiction rules67

Insurance matters67

Consumer contracts68

Other specified matters68

Relationship with actions "in rem"69

6. Security aspects of an action "in personam"69

7. Remedies available69

A. On the merits69

B. Provisional remedies梩he "Mareva" injunction70

8. County Court jurisdiction70

CHAPTER 4. ENFORCEMENT OF MARITIME CLAIMS BY AN ACTION"IN REM"71

1. Availability of the action "in rem"71

Claims specified by the Supreme Court Act 198171

(a) The Supreme Court Act 1981, s.21(2) and (4)71

(b) Maritime liens (s.21(3))72

(c) The "sweeping up" clause (s.20(l)(c))72

(d) Damage received by a ship (s.20(2)(d))72

2. Actions "in rem" and specified categories of claim73

Action "in rem" in relation to claims within s.20(2)(e)?r)73

A. Against the particular ship73

(a) Legislative history and present scope74

(b) The critical "in personam" link points76

B. Against a "sister" ship (Ⅰ.e. a ship other than the particular ship)78

(a) May an action "in rem" be brought against a sister ship other than that in the same ownership as the ship in respect of which the claim arose?79

(b) If an action "in rem" may be brought in relation to a ship owned by a "charterer" does this include a time or voyage charterer?80

Action "in rem" in relation to claims and questions within s.20(2)(a)(b)(c), (s)80

The "sweeping up" clause81

"Maritime lien or other charge" (s.21 (3))81

The concept of maritime lien82

"Or other charge"82

3. The Supreme Court Act 1981 as a jurisdictional framework82

4. Link between the issue and England required for an action "in rem" to be brought82

The basic rule82

The basic rule is qualified83

Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 198283

5. The effect of ther nature of the action "in rem" on procedure and remedies84

6. The inter-relationship of action "in personam" and action "in rem"84

7. Commencement of an action "in rem"85

8. County Court jurisdiction85

CHAPTER5. DELAY IN SUIT86

1. Effect of delay86

Extinguishment of right or remedy?86

Avoidance of effect of delay87

2. Aspects of delay87

Ⅰ. Jurisdiction clauses and a time bar87

Ⅱ. Notice of the claim88

Ⅲ. Commencement of suit-issue of writ88

Statutory time limits89

The general pattern89

Limitation periods for particular types of claim89

The limitation framework90

（Ⅰ） Statutes specifying particularly limitation periods90

（Ⅱ） The general pattern-The Limitation Act 198093

Delay in service of writ97

Want of prosecution of a claim99

Delay in assertion of the remedy100

Judgment on order on the merits100

Provisional remedies100

3. Relevance of a foreign element101

CHAPTER 6. RESTRICTIONS ON THE EXERCISE OF JURISDICTION102

A. Restrictions on English proceedings102

1. Jurisdictional agreements102

Construction of the clause103

Statutory and Convention provisions relevant to jurisdictional agreements103

(a) The Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982103

(b) Other Conventions104

The Hague and Hague-Visby Rules104

The jurisdictional clause and its effect106

(a) Stay of proceedings106

The relevance of the foreign law108

The time bar108

The unfair trial109

(b) Leave to serve a writ "in personam" out of the jurisdiction109

Jurisdictional agreements and arrest110

2. Arbitration agreements110

Arrest and arbitration clauses110

3. The appropriate forum-"forum conveniens"111

The role of the "natural forum"112

The burden of proof114

The relevance of concurrent foreign proceedings115

The plaintiff's right to choose the forum116

The appropriate forum and jurisdictional agreements117

4. Sovereign immunity117

A. Foreign governments117

（Ⅰ） The general framework117

（Ⅱ） Maritime claims120

B. Government of the United Kingdom122

"Crown" liability "in personam"122

"Crown" liability "in rem"123

(a) The Crown Proceedings Act 1974 and Supreme Court Act 1981123

(b) The Pre-statute framework124

5. Restrictions on specific types of claims125

（Ⅰ） Nuclear activities125

（Ⅱ） Actions for trespass to foreign land125

（Ⅲ） The Rhine Navigation Convention 1868126

（Ⅳ） Foreign ships127

（Ⅴ） Trade disputes-immunity from suit128

（Ⅵ） Insurance contracts-ack of enforceability129

6. Abuse of process129

B. Restriction on foreign proceedings130

Protection of Trading Interests Act 1980130

Acting contrary to jurisdictional or arbitration agreement131

Security proceedings131

CHAPTER7. ARBITRATION133

Relationship between English courts and English arbitrations133

The arbitration clause and the substantive contract134

Arbitrations and the law to be applied135

Ⅰ. The governing law135

Ⅱ. English law and English arbitrators135

Ⅲ. The New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 1968136

The English statutory framework-The Arbitration Acts 1950, 1975 and 1979136

Ⅰ. The general framework136

Ⅱ. Power of the courts in respect of arbitration proceedings Arrest137

Ⅲ. Judicial review of and appeal from arbitration decisions138

Ⅳ. Exclusion of appeal to the High Court139

Delay in arbitration proceedings142

Ⅰ. In commencement of proceedings142

Ⅱ. Power in court to extend periods fixed by arbitration agreement142

Ⅲ. Delay in prosecution of proceedings144

(a) Control by arbitrator144

(b) Control by the courts144

Staying of court proceedings146

The arbitration award and its enforcement148

English arbitration awards148

Foreign arbitration awards148

PART Ⅱ. INTERIM RELIEF149

CHAPTER 8. NATURE AND BASIS OF INTERIM RELIEF151

Ⅰ. The obtaining of evidence152

Ⅱ. Controlling of actions of parties prior to hearing152

Ⅲ. Measures against dissipation of defendant's assets153

A. Preservation of property153

B. "Mareva" injunction153

C. Arrest of ship, cargo or freight154

Ⅳ. A substantive remedy prior to hearing on merits154

Procedure for obtaining of interim relief155

Arrest155

Other modes of interim relief155

Interim relief in arbitration proceedings156

CHAPTER 9. ARREST AND ALTERNATIVE SECURITY157

Introduction157

The three functions of arrest157

The civil law approach157

Constitutional issues157

Alternative security157

The international approach158

Arrest-the international scene158

Convention Relating to the Arrest of Sea Going Ships 1952159

The Arrest Convention and the EEC Jurisdiction Convention160

The Hamburg Rules 1978160

The Convention on the Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods by Road 1956 (The CMR)161

Limitation of shipowners' liability Conventions 1924, 1957 and 1976162

Summary162

The arrest framework in English law163

Ⅰ. Arrest and the action "in rem" in English law163

Ⅱ. Arrest as security163

Bankruptcy or company liquidation164

Bankruptcy164

Liquidation of companies164

Ⅲ. Property or ship liable to arrest164

Ⅳ. Warrant of arrest and writ "in rem"165

V. Stage in proceedings when arrest available166

Ⅵ. Restrictions on availability of arrest167

(a) Restrictions specifically imposed on arrest167

Government Ships and Other Property167

Abuse of Process168

(b) Consequences of lack of jurisdiction on merits168

Assertion of jurisdiction "in rem"-the issue of the writ168

Ground of challenge to the issue of a writ169

Staying or dismissal of proceedings169

Discretionary power to refuse to sustain arrest169

Problem areas-arbitration, and foreign jurisdiction170

Discretionary power to decline jurisdiction-power to attach conditions170

The Arrest Convention170

The Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982171

The Arbitration Act 1950171

Power to make release from arrest conditional172

(c) Foreign arrest173

Arrest following a foreign arrest173

Arrest-Commencement and duration173

Ⅰ. The warrant of arrest173

Ⅱ. Admiralty Marshal's fees and expenses174

Undertaking to pay174

Where there is more than one arrest175

Ⅲ. Arrester's expenses175

Ⅳ. Rights and liabilities in respect of property under arrest176

Rights of third parties affected by the arrest176

Rights existing at or before arrest177

Intervention in proceedings177

Expenses of discharge of cargo178

"Wrongful" arrest178

Termination of arrest179

Ⅰ. Release from arrest179

Limitation of liability and release from arrest179

Ⅱ. Judicial sale181

Security alternative to arrest181

Ⅰ. Caveat against release from arrest182

Liability in damages of caveat holder182

Ⅱ. Security in substitution for arrest182

Bail, payment into court, guarantee182

Bail183

Release of property arrested183

Rearrest184

Foreign bail in respect of English proceedings184

English bail in respect of foreign proceedings185

Payment into court185

A Guarantee or undertaking185

Arrest and detention186

Arrest and execution of judgment186

CHAPTER 10. THE "MAREVA" INJUNCTION187

Nature and purpose187

The root and development of the injunction187

Need for jurisdiction "in personam" in relation to the substantive cause of action188

Ⅰ. Jurisdiction "in personam"188

Ⅱ. Jurisdiction "in rem"189

Criteria for granting of injunction190

Ⅰ. No requirement of a "foreign" defendant190

Ⅱ. Requirement of assets in England or Wales190

Ⅲ. Need for (A) risk that assets will disappear and (B) likely default191

Ⅳ. Requirement of an undertaking in damages and expenses191

Case to be made by the plaintiff191

Need for "a good arguable case"192

Need for risk that judgment will not be satisfied193

Variation of the injunction194

The form of the order-the "maximum sum" approach195

Ancillary orders in aid of the injunction195

The effect of the injunction196

Ⅰ. In relation to the defendant196

Ⅱ. In relation to third parties196

The "knowledge" required for breach196

Limitations on restrictions of action of third party by injunction197

Effect of injunction on third party as grounds for refusal to grant197

Comparison of arrest and "Mareva" injunction as provisional remedies-a summary198

PART Ⅲ. SECURITY ON THE MERITS-THE LIEN CONCEPT199

CHAPTER 11. NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF LIENS201

1. The nature of a "lien"-or what's in a word?201

Lien and mortgage201

Lien and charge202

The floating charge202

2. The development of liens in English law203

A. Common law, Equity and statute203

The possessory lien203

The equitable lien203

The statutory lien204

B. Admiralty204

（Ⅰ） Applicability of liens of common law, equity and statute204

（Ⅱ） Admiralty liens204

3. Which lien and when?204

Priorities205

4. Foreign liens205

5. Liens and the registration of interests206

6. Maritime liens, statutory liens in Admiralty and the action "in rem"207

A. The concept of lien and the action "in rem"207

The Supreme Court Act 1981 and the action "in rem"208

（Ⅰ） Maritime lien (Supreme Court Act 1981, s.21(3))208

（Ⅱ） Claims based on Supreme Court Act 1981, s.20(2)(a)-(c), (s)208

（Ⅲ） Claims within the sweeping up clause208

（Ⅳ） Claims based on Supreme Court Act 1981, s.20(2)(e)-(r)208

（Ⅴ） An escape from further uncertainty-the reform that wasn't209

B. The nature of the action "in rem"209

C. The action "in rem"-procedure, personification or neither?210

（Ⅰ） Procedure210

（Ⅱ） Personification211

（Ⅲ） A third view-hypothec and deodand211

D. Factors of procedure and substance in the action "in rem"212

Substance212

Procedure212

E. The action "in rem"-the procedural and personification views and present rules213

The procedural view213

The personification view214

F. The relevance of the procedural/personification debate to the modern action "in rem"214

CHAPTER 12. MARITIME LIENS216

1. Claims to which a maritime lien may attach216

2. Consequences of attracting a maritime lien216

3. The nature of the maritime lien218

Ⅰ. The maritime lien and the action "in rem"218

Ⅱ. The "maritime lien" as a legal category of claims218

At the time of "The Bold Buccleugh"-in 1851219

Ⅲ. The modern maritime lien and statutory lien in Admiralty compared220

Ⅳ. The maritime lien-procedure or substance?221

"The Bold Buccleugh"221

Modern views of "The Bold Buccleugh"222

4. Assets subject to a maritime lien224

Ⅰ. A ship224

Things that go upon the water224

A ship, its parts and things on board224

The ship's apparel and salvage claims226

Ⅱ. Other property226

(a) Freight226

(b) Cargo227

Bottomry and Respondentia227

Salvage227

5. Enforceability of maritime liens228

Procedure or personification228

Different aspects of enforceability228

（Ⅰ） Enforceability of the claim "in personam"229

（Ⅱ） Enforceability against other creditors229

（Ⅲ） Enforceability against purchasers229

（Ⅳ） Enforceability against asset when the present owner is not liable "in personam"229

(a) The differing contexts in which the lack of personal liability of the shipowner arises229

(b) A general principle of shipowner's liability231

(c) The different claims and the development of the need for the shipowner's liability233

6. Transferability of maritime liens236

Ⅰ. Voluntary transfer236

（Ⅰ） Assignment236

Bottomry bonds236

Maritime liens apart from bottomry bonds236

Restrictions on assignment of wages238

（Ⅱ） Subrogation239

（Ⅲ） Voluntary payment of claims239

Ⅱ. Involuntary transfer240

（Ⅰ） Bankruptcy and death240

（Ⅱ） Statutory right to contribution240

7. Extinction of maritime liens240

Ⅰ. Immunity from suit240

Foreign States240

The United Kingdom Government241

Ⅱ. Delay of suit241

Ⅲ. Loss of right to arrest through stay of proceedings241

Arbitration or foreign jurisdiction clause241

Effect on maritime lien attached to property retained241

Equivalent security242

Effect on maritime lien attached to property not arrested or released242

Ⅳ. Lodging of bail or provision of other security242

(a) Bail242

Limitation of liability-limitation action243

(b) Payment into court243

(c) Security by way of guarantee or undertaking243

V. Bankruptcy and liquidation244

Bankruptcy244

Liquidation244

Ⅵ. Agreement, waiver and estoppel245

VⅡ. Destruction of the property246

VⅢ. Judgment on liability246

Ⅸ. Judicial sale246

8. The international framework relating to maritime liens246

Ⅰ. The Convention of 1926247

Mortgages247

Maritime liens248

Other liens248

Ⅱ. The Convention of 1967249

Principal changes from the Convention of 1926249

The pattern of the Convention249

Mortgage and hypotheques249

Maritime liens249

Other liens250

CHAPTER 13. STATUTORY LIENS IN ADMIRALTY251

The action "in rem" and statutory lien in Admiralty251

1. Nature of the "statutory lien"251

Ⅰ. Origins-Admiralty Court Acts 1840 and 1861251

Admiralty Court Acts 1840 and 1861 and maritime liens251

Statutory extensions of the action "in rem" after 1861252

Ⅱ. The Supreme Court Act 1981-the present framework for the action "in rem"252

Ⅲ."The statutory lien in Admiralty"-is it to be equated with the action "in rem"?253

(a) The action "in rem"-substance or procedure?253

(b) The nature of the claims attracting the action "in rem"254

（Ⅰ） Claims in s.20(2) (e)-(r)-the proprietary role of the action "in rem"254

（Ⅱ） Claims in s.20(2)(a)(b)(c) and (s)-the procedural role of the action "in rem"255

（Ⅲ） Claims within s.20(l)(c)(d)-past and future jurisdiction256

Ⅳ. Summary256

（Ⅰ） The need for precise analysis256

（Ⅱ） The need for legislative clarification257

(a) Priority257

(b) Enforceability against third parties257

2. Creation of the lien258

3. Assets subject to the lien258

Ⅰ. Claims under s.21(4)258

Ⅱ. Claims under s.21(2) or s.20(1)(c)259

4. Transferability259

5. Termination259

6. The legal consequences of attracting the action "in rem"-a summary259

CHAPTER 14. POSSESSORY LIENS261

Nature of a possessory lien261

Assets subject to the lien261

A. Common law possessory liens (applying to but not created primarily in maritime law)261

1. Generally applicable principles262

（Ⅰ） Commencement of the lien262

A contractual right to a possessory lien262

（Ⅱ） Enforceability of the lien262

(a) Against creditors263

(b) Against third parties other than creditors263

（Ⅲ） Termination of the lien263

(a) Loss of possession263

(b) Taking of action inconsistent with a possessory lien264

(c) Tender of amount due264

2. General liens264

(a) By usage264

Claims to which a general lien may attach264

Enforceability of the lien265

(b) By contract265

(c) By statute266

Particular liens266

(a) By usage266

Claims to which a particular lien attaches266

(b) By contract268

(c) By statute268

B. Maritime possessory liens268

Maritime and other possessory liens268

Claims to which maritime possessory liens may attach268

Enforceability of the maritime possessory lien269

The individual liens269

（Ⅰ） The shipowner's lien on cargo for freight269

Continued existence after delivery of possession to warehouse269

Termination270

Sale of landed goods270

（Ⅱ） Shipowner's lien for average contributions271

(a) General average271

(b) Particular average271

（Ⅲ） The salvor's lien271

Agent's lien271

（Ⅳ） Warehouseman's lien for wharf or warehouse charges271

（Ⅴ） The broker's lien272

Enforceability272

（Ⅵ） Harbour and other public authorities273

Statutory rights of detention273

Need to detain273

The power of sale273

CHAPTER 15. EQUITABLE LIENS274

1. The substance of the lien274

Equitable lien and equitable charge274

Reservation of title clause275

2. The equitable lien in Admiralty275

3. Creation of the lien275

Ⅰ. By contract275

Bills of Sale Acts 1878 and 1882275

Companies Act 1948, s.95276

Ⅱ. Arising from the relationship of the parties276

Vendor's lien for unpaid purchase money276

Ⅲ. Arising from a course of conduct276

4. Enforceability of the lien277

Ⅰ. Against third parties277

Ⅱ. Tracing into other assets277

5. Transferability278

6. Termination278

CHAPTER 16. LIEN CLAUSE IN CHARTER-PARTY OR BILL OF LADING279

A. Charter-parties279

1. The lien clause279

2. The lien clause in the context of the document as a whole280

3. The liens created by the charter-party clause280

（Ⅰ） Shipowner's lien on cargo280

(a) Nature of lien280

(b) "All cargoes"280

（Ⅱ） Owner's lien on subfreights282

(a) Nature of the lien282

(b) Does "freight" include charter-party hire?282

(c) Does the clause include "sub sub freights"?282

（Ⅲ） Charterer's lien on ship282

Nature of the lien282

（Ⅳ） Lien not to be suffered or permitted to continue283

4. Charterer's liability dependent on exercise of owner's lien283

5. The governing law283

B. Bill of lading284

CHAPTER 17. PRIORITIES285

Ⅰ. The general problems of priority285

Ⅱ. Principles of priority in English law286

1. The basic principles of "in personam" priority286

Legal and equitable interests286

Other modifications286

Maritime claims "in personam"287

2. The Admiralty rules of priority "in rem"287

"In rem" priority categories288

"In personam" priority principles in the "in rem" framework288

3. Priority between "in rem" and "in personam" claims288

Ⅲ. The priority framework in English law288

1. Title (or ownership)289

"In personam" priority289

（Ⅰ） Equitable interests289

（Ⅱ） Other modifications of "first in time"290

"In rem" priority292

2. Use for a specified period of time292

（Ⅰ） Charter-party292

"In personam" priority292

"In rem" priority293

（Ⅱ） Lease or bailment293

"In personam" priority293

"In rem" priority293

3. Security interests293

A. General principles294

"In personam" priority294

Registration provisions294

"In rem" priority296

B. Priority and each security interest296

（Ⅰ） Mortgage296

Bottomry and/or respondentia299

（Ⅱ） Charges299

（Ⅲ） Pledge300

（Ⅳ） Liens301

Ⅳ. Priority relationship between actions "in rem" and "in personam" proprietary interests311

Ⅰ. Ownership312

Ⅱ. Mortgage, charge and lien312

Ⅲ. Interests created by statute312

Statutory rights of port authorities to detention and sale of ships312

Solicitor's lien under the Solicitors Act 1974313

Limitation actions313

Ⅳ. The execution creditor314

A charging order314

Effect of judicial sale in the action "in rem"315

Summary315

Priority between "in rem" claims and proprietary interests "in personam"315

V. Attempts at international frameworks梞ortgages and liens315

PART Ⅳ. THE FOREIGN ELEMENT317

CHAPTER 18. APPLICATION OF FOREIGN LAW319

Ⅰ. The English approach319

1. The three-stage English choice of law process319

The operation of English "public policy"320

2. Limitations on the selection process320

(a) The scope of the dispositive rule320

Substantive limitation320

Territorial limitation of a dispositive rule321

(b) A forum mandatory dispositive rule321

(c) Foreign law deemed to be English law322

3. Choice of law and jurisdiction322

(a) Discretionary jurisdiction-evance of governing law322

(b) Statutory claims322

4. Maritime claims and the English choice of law process322

The problem of the high seas322

Maritime claims323

Statutory claims-Airalty jurisdiction and choice of law323

Ⅱ. Alternative approaches to selection by classification qualified by public policy324

Ⅲ. The categories and their selection rules325

1. Substance or procedure325

(a) Time bars325

(b) Priorities326

The role of the law of the forum326

Maritime claims326

(c) Remedies327

(d) Evidence327

2. Choice of law for substantive issues328

(a) Contract329

The proper law of the contract329

(b) Tort334

(c) Restitution339

(d) Proprietary issues342

Summary348

CHAPTER 19. FOREIGN JUDGMENTS AND FOREIGN ARBITRAL AWARDS350

Ⅰ. Foreign judgments350

1. Merger of action and judgment350

2. Judgments given in proceedings brought contrary to a jurisdictional agreement350

3. The English framework for recognition and enforcement351

Recognition and enforcement351

A. Judgments within the Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982352

(a) Convention judgments352

(b) Enforceability of judgments of United Kingdom courts within the United Kingdom354

B Judgments outside the Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982354

Ⅱ. Foreign arbitral awards361

Merger of cause of action into award361

English law362

(a) Without registration362

(b) Registration363

PART V. REMEDIES365

CHAPTER 20. REMEDIES IN ACTIONS ON THE MERITS367

1. Remedies generally and remedies in Admiralty367

(a) Remedies and grounds367

(b) Jurisdiction over remedies367

Remedies in actions "in personam"367

Remedies in actions "in rem"368

2. Actions "in personam" and available remedies368

A. Types of remedies368

B. Enforcement of judgments or orders371

C. The possessory lien373

3. The action "in rem" and available remedies373

Ⅰ. Judicial sale373

(a) General powers373

(b) Property under arrest in an action "in rem"374

Ⅱ. Remedies "in personam"375

(a) Damages375

(b) Equitable remedies376

APPENDICES377

APPENDIX 1. STATUTES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM (Extracts)377

1. Supreme Court Act 1981 (c.54) ss.20-24377

2. Administration of Justice Act 1956 (4 and 5 Eliz. 2, c.46)382

APPENDIX2. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS (Extracts)388

1. International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to the Arrest of Sea Going Ships 1952388

2. International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to Maritime Liens and Mortgages 1926394

3. International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to Maritime Liens and Mortgages 1967401

APPENDIX3. RULES OF THE SUPREME COURT 1965 (Extracts) (Amended to 1st August 1984)408

APPENDIX4. SUPREME COURT FORMS426

APPENDIX5. FOREIGN LAWS437

1. Enforcement of Maritime Claims, Liens and Arrest in Scandinavia (Professor Thor Falkanger)437

2. Maritime Claims, Arrest and Liens in France (Professor B. Mercadal)448

3. Enforcement of Maritime Claims, Arrest and Liens in Poland (Professor Woljciech Adamczak)461

INDEX470