《PROTECTIONISM AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING》求取 ⇩

PART ONEPROTECTIONISM AND THE QUEST FOR NATIONAL FLEETS3

Introduction to Part One3

Chapter 1.Protectionism in international shipping7

1.Introduction7

2.Importance of transportation for development9

3.Importance of maritime transport in international trade9

4.Laissez-faire in international shipping11

5.Protectionism in international shipping11

6.The approach or methodology14

7.Definition problems15

8.Outline15

Appendix 1.Classification of countries and territories17

Notes20

Chapter 2.The quest for national fleets23

1.Introduction:International shipping after the war23

2.Changed material conditions:Emergence from colonial domination of the developing countries24

3.The problems of internationalism in shipping:The shipping liberalism of the advanced shipping nations26

3.1Laissez-faire,the freedom of the high seas and national fleets27

3.2 Liberalism,flags of convenience and national fleets29

3.3 Internationalism,liner conference systems and the rise of national fleets33

4.The inequalities between the advanced and the developing nations in maritime transport35

4.1The imbalance in international shipping:The share of the developing countries in oceanborne trade and world shipping37

4.2 The growing concern of the developing maritime nations44

5.Maritime transport costs to the developing countries' national fleets,international trade and the balance of payments45

5.1International trade,freight rates and the drive for national fleets by the developing countries48

5.2 Freight rates,national fleets and the balance of payments' problems (BOP) of the developing countries50

6.The United Nations and national fleets of the developing countries—Development Decades:The development strategy and the new international maritime order52

Appendix 2.Summary of grievances of African countries to the conferences serving the region58

Notes61

PART TWOTRADITIONAL METHODS OF ESTABLISHING NATIONAL FLEETS69

Introduction to Part Two69

Chapter 3.Flag preference71

1.Introduction71

2.Cargo reservation72

2.1Cargo sharing72

2.2 Cargo preference73

2.3 Cargo reservation74

3.Exclusions:Bilateralism and multilateralism75

3.1Cabotage restrictions or unilateralism75

3.2 Bilateralism76

3.3 Multilateralism78

4.State-financed cargoes81

4.1'Foreign aid cargoes' preference81

4.2 'Surplus agricultural commodities and relief aid' preferences84

4.3 'Government-financed cargo' preferences85

5.Miscellaneous flag preferences86

5.1Foreign parity flag preferences86

5.2 Inland parity flag preferences87

5.3 Miscellaneous flag preferences88

6.Advantages and disadvantages of flag preferences89

6.1Development aspects of the Code of Conduct89

6.2 Advantages of flag preference90

6.3 Flag preference and development91

6.4 Flag preference and the future of international shipping92

7.Conclusion93

Appendix 3.Summary of the practices by selected developing maritime countries94

Appendix 4.Summary of the preferential practices by the traditional maritime nations96

Notes97

Chapter 4.Flag discrimination as a method of establishing national fleets103

1.Introduction103

2.Port surcharges and discriminatory fees104

2.1Port discriminations104

2.2 Discriminatory fees and surcharges106

3.Scheduled cargoes107

3.1Itemised or designated cargoes107

3.2 Energy transportation108

3.3 Defence and security transportation109

3.4 Government supplies111

4.Essential trade routes' discriminations113

5.CIF,FOB and miscellaneous discriminations117

6.Advantages and disadvantages of flag discrimination119

6.1The OECD counter measures119

6.2 Retaliatory flag discrimination120

6.3 Countervailing flag discrimination121

Notes122

Appendix 5.Details of main provisions involving flag discrimination in force or contemplated by certain countries at 31st October,1983127

PART THREETRADITIONAL METHODS OF DEVELOPING NATIONAL FLEETS147

Introduction to Part Three147

Chapter 5.Maritime subsidies as a method of developing national fleets147

1.Introduction147

1.1Financial aid and fiscal relief to shipping and shipbuilding147

1.2 What is a subsidy?148

1.3 Maritime subsidies148

1.4 Origins of maritime subsidies149

1.5 Postal subvention151

2.Direct subsidies151

2.1Reasons for direct subsidies152

2.2 Operation subsidies153

2.3 Constructional subsidies155

2.4 Modernization subsidy (scrap and build and demolition)159

2.5 Actual depreciation subsidies161

2.6 Accelerated depreciation subsidies163

2.7 Loan subsidies164

2.8 Interest subsidies166

3.Indirect subsidies167

3.1Investment allowances and grants167

3.2 Investment guarantee and deferred credits168

3.3 Tax benefits170

3.4 Construction deposits172

3.5 Customs exemptions174

3.6 Compensatory subsidy175

3.7 Inflation and insurance subsidies175

3.8 Seamen's welfare benefits176

3.9 Ship research grants177

4.Advantages and disadvantages of maritime subsidies178

4.1Maritime subsidies and flag discrimination contrasted178

4.2 Justifying maritime subsidies180

4.3 Conclusion on maritime subsidies181

Notes182

Chapter 6.State intervention as a method of developing national fleets191

1.Introduction191

1.1Interference or intervention191

1.2 Nature and development of intervention192

2.State control194

2.1Supervisory planning194

2.2 Government directives and approvals196

2.3 Regulating agencies197

2.4 Control of foreign participation199

3.State participation200

3.1Joint ventures and partnerships201

3.2 Nationalised shipping and shipyards202

3.3 State-owned shipping203

3.4 State purchase204

3.5 State contracts205

4.State aid to oceanborne trade205

4.1Export inducements and incentives207

4.2 Export promotion207

4.3 Ship export credits208

4.4 Foreign exchange exemptions209

4.5 Foreign exchange restrictions210

4.6 Import restrictions211

5.Other mechanisms of state intervention212

5.1Domestic ship registry212

5.2 Foreign ship registry213

6.Advantages of and rationale for state intervention214

Notes215

PART FOURPROBLEMS CAUSED BY AND/OR ARISING FROM THE USE OF THE TRADITIONAL METHODS OF ESTABLISHING AND DEVELOPING NATIONAL FLEETS231

Introduction to Part Four231

Chapter 7.Problems relating to customary international law231

1.Introduction231

2.Equality of treatment231

2.1Material concept of flag equality232

2.2 Formal concept of flag equality233

3.Minimum standard and flag equality234

3.1Most favoured nation treatment234

3.2 National treatment and equality of flags235

3.3 Minimum standard and equality of flags236

3.4 The problem of unilateral counter-measures237

4.Protectionism and the freedom of the high seas238

4.1Freedom of maritime transport239

4.2 Innocent passage and protectionism240

4.3 Treatment of landlocked states242

4.4 Freedom of transit passage242

Notes243

Chapter 8.Problems relating to international economic laws249

1.Introduction249

2.The legal regime of maritime ports249

2.1The Convention on Maritime Ports, 1923250

2.2 Rights of entry into maritime ports251

3.The legal regime of IMO252

3.1The Convention of IMO,1948253

3.2 IMO and the establishment of national fleets254

3.3 IMO Convention on the Facilitation of Maritime Traffic,1965254

4.International waterways255

4.1Convention on the Regime of Navigable Waterways256

4.2 The position regarding international straits257

4.3 International canals258

5.International treaties258

5.1GATT Convention and restrictive shipping259

5.2 The OECD and international shipping260

5.3 OECD Code of Liberalisation and shipping262

5.4 The Treaty of Rome and restrictive shipping262

5.5 UN Code of Restrictive Business Practices (RBP)264

Notes265

Chapter 9.Consequences to the domestic and foreign groups and economies271

1.Introduction271

2.The cost of restrictive practices and state aid271

2.1The question of efficiency272

2.2 Administrative restraints276

2.3 Wider economic consequence of aiding national fleets277

3.Effects of discriminations on various groups and nations280

3.1Increase in domestic gross profit284

3.2 Effects on sections of the economy of the country286

3.3 The economic consequences to shipowners286

3.4 Economic consequences to the community and consumers290

Notes291

PART FIVERESOLVING THE PROBLEM:RECOMMENDATIONS297

Chapter 10.Future prospects for national and international shipping297

1.Introduction297

2.Earlier attempts to deal with the problem of national fleets299

2.1Administrative approach299

2.2 The legislative approach: the Brussels Package300

2.3 Alternative investments for developing maritime nations302

2.4 A scheme for the developing maritime nations303

3.Cooperation and joint ventures306

3.1Regional cooperation between the DMNS306

3.2 Joint ventures between the TMNS and DMNS:multinational shipping enterprises (MSE) or consortia307

3.3 Joint ventures and national shipping contrasted309

3.4 ICC joint venture project for the DMNS310

3.5 The elements of the Caracus Declaration311

3.6 The Japanese program for the DMNS312

3.7 Advantages and disadvantages of joint shipping313

4.The case for an international shipping authority316

4.1NIMO and reforming transnational shipping corporations316

4.2 The case for an international shipping registry:transformation of liner conferences and phasing out of flags of convenience317

4.3 The case for an international shipping authority319

4.4 The structure of the proposed international shipping authority320

5.Conclusion323

Notes324

PART SIXOVERALL CONCLUSION AND BIBLIOGRAPHY337

Concluding remarks337

Bibliography343

1.Glossary343

2.Selected list of international and maritime journal abbreviations345

3.List of selected maritime and transportation journal abbreviations348

4.UNCTAD shipping documents349

5.Selected articles353

6.Selected books362

7.Selected legislations368

7.1Selected byelaws372

8.Cases referred to372

9.Selected conventions374

9.1Treaties and agreements374

9.2 Reports376

Annexes379

1.List of signatory nations which have adopted the UNCTAD liner code in order of accession as of July 1,1983379

2.The Brussels Package380

3.Agreement between Brazil and the United States concerning equal access to government-controlled cargoes (29 UST 2860;TIAS 8981-Washington,November 17,1977)383

4.Convention on A Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences:Objectives and principles385

5.Extracts from 'International Development Strategy,for the Second United Nations Development Decade',adopted by UNGA resolution 2626(ⅩⅩⅤ) of 24 October 1970408

6.Example of shipping cooperation:Ministerial Conference of West and Central African States on Maritime Transports-Abidjan,5-6-7 May,1975410

7.Aims and objectives of the OECD411

8.Note 1 to Annex A of the Code of Liberalisation of Current Invisible Operations (adopted by the Council on 12 December,1961)411

9.Articles 1 to 3 of the Convention on the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development412

10.Note of understanding (reached between European Conference Lines and European Shippers,following European Ministers' March 1963 Resolution)412

11.U.S. Shipping Act 1916 (and flag discrimination)413

12.Foreign reaction to U.S. promotional policies (subsidy and cargo preference)416

13.Foreign reactions to U.S. regulatory policies417

14.Countervailing flag discrimination417

15.National treatment-flag preference419

16.Most-favoured nation treatment-flag preference421

17.Miscellaneous preferences and discriminations422

About the author425

Index427