《A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. The Classical Theories》

ⅠTHE THEORY OF THE AETHER TO THE DEATH OF NEWTON1

The relation of Early Science to Philosophy1

Aristotelian Physics2

The fall of Scholasticism:Bacon,Descartes,Galileo3

Kepler:the Physical writings of Descartes5

Descartes＇Cosmogony and Optics9

Fermat attacks Descartes＇Theory of Light:the Principle of Least Time11

Hooke＇s Undulatory Theory:the advance of Wave-fronts13

Newton overthrows Hooke＇s Theory of Colours17

Conception of the Aether in the writings of Newton19

Newton＇s Theories of the Periodicity of Homogeneous Light and of Fits of Easy Transmission21

The Velocity of Light:Galileo,Roemer22

Huygens＇Trailé de la Lumière:His Theories of the Propagation of Waves and of Crystalline Optics23

Newton shows that Rays obtained by Double Refraction have Sides:His Objections to the Wave Theory27

Newton＇s Principia:the delay in its acceptance28

Le Sage＇s Ultra-Mundane Corpuscles31

ⅡELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC SCIENCE PRIOR TO THE INTRODUC-TION OF THE POTENTIALS33

The Early History of Magnetism:Pierre de Maricourt,Gilbert,Descartes33

The Electrical Researches of Gilbert:the Theory of Emanations35

State of Physical Science in the First Half of the Eighteenth Century:the Nature of Heat37

Gray discovers Electric Conduction:Desaguliers41

The Electric Fluid42

Du Fay distinguishes Vitreous and Resinous Electricity44

Nollet＇s Effluent and Affluent Streams44

The Leyden Phial45

The One-Fluid Theory:Ideas of Watson and Franklin46

Final Overthrow by Aepinus of the Doctrine of Effluvia51

Priesfley discovers the Law of Electrostatic Force53

Cavendish54

Michell discovers the Law of Magnetic Force56

The Two-Fluid Theory:Coulomb57

Limited Mobility of the Magnetic Fluids59

Poisson＇s Mathematical Theory of Electrostatics61

The Equivalent Surface-and Volume-Distributions of Magnetism:Poisson＇s Theory of Magnetic Induction64

Green＇s Nottingham Memoir65

ⅢGALVANISM,FROM GALVANI TO OHM67

Sulzer＇s Discovery67

Galvanic Phenomena67

Rival Hypotheses regarding the Galvanic Fluid69

The Voltaic Pile71

Nicholson and Carlisle decompose Water voltaically73

Davy＇s Chemical Theory of the Pile75

Voltaic Polarisation76

Grothuss＇Chain76

De La Rive＇s Hypothesis77

Berzelius＇Scheme of Electro-chemistry78

Early Atrempts to discover a connexion between Electricity and Magnetism80

Oersted＇s Experiment:His Explanation of it81

The Law of Biot and Savart82

The Researches of Ampère on Electrodynamies83

Seebeck＇s Phenomenon89

Davy＇s Researches or Conducting Power90

Ohm＇s Theory:Eleetroscopic Force91

ⅣTHE LUMINIFEROUS MEDIUM FROM BRADLEY TO FRESNEL94

Bradley discovers Aberration94

Johann Bernoulli＇s Model of the Aether95

Maupertuis and the Principle of Least Action97

Euler＇s Aether98

Views of Courtivron and Melvill99

Radiant Heat and Ultra-violet Light99

Young defends the Wave Theory and Explains the Colours of Thin Plates100

Laplace supplies a Corpuscular Theory of Double Refraction104

Young proposes a Dynamical Theory of Light in Crystals104

Researches of Malus on Polarisation105

Brewster＇s recognition of Biaxal Crystals107

Fresnel successfully explains Diffraction107

His Theory of the Relative Motion of Aether and Matter108

Young suggests the Transversality of the Vibrations of Light114

Fresnel discusses the Dynamics of Transverse Vibrations116

Fresnel＇s Theory of the Propagation of Light in Crystals117

Hamilton predicts Conical Refraction122

Fresnel＇s Theory of Reflexion123

Experiments of Airy,Foucault and Fizeau126

ⅤTHE AETHER AS AN ELASTIC SOLID128

Astronomical objection to the Elastic-solid Theory:Stokes＇s Hypothesis128

Navier and Cauchy discover the Fquation of Vibration of an Elastic Solid129

Poisson distinguishes Condensational and Distortional Waves131

Cauchy＇s First and Second Theories of Light in Crystals133

Cauchy＇s First Theory of Reflexion134

His Second Theory of Reflexion136

The Theory of Reflexion of MacCullagh and Neumann137

Green discovers the correct Conditions at the Boundaries139

Green＇s Theory of Reflexion:objections to it140

MacCullagh introduces a New Type of Elastic Solid142

W．Thomson＇s Model of a Rotationally-elastic Body145

Cauchy＇s Third Theory of Reflexion:the Contractile Aether145

Later Work of W．Thomson and others on the Contractile Aether147

Green＇s First and Second Theories of Light in Crystals148

Influence of Green:Neglect of his work during his Lifetime153

Researches of Stokes on the relation of the Direction of Vibration of Light to its Plane of Polarisation154

The Hypothesis of Aeolotropie Inertia156

Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation of Light by Active Bodies158

MacCullagh＇s Theory of Natural Rotatory Power159

MacCullagh and Cauchy＇s Theory of Metallic Reflexion161

Extension of the Elastic-solid Theory to Metals163

Lord Rayleigh＇s objection164

Cauchy＇s Theory of Dispersion165

Boussinesq＇s Elastic-solid Theory167

ⅥFARADAY170

Discovery of Induced Currents:Lines of Magnetic Force171

Self-induction174

Identity of Frictional and Voltaic Electricity:Faraday＇s views on the Nature of Electricity175

Electro-chemistry177

Controversy between the adherents of the Classical and Contact Hypotheses180

The Properties of Dielectrics184

Theory of Dielectric Polarisaton:Faraday,W．Thomson and Mossotti186

The Connexion between Magnetism and Light190

Airy＇s Theory of Magnetic Rotatory Polarisation191

Faraday＇s Thoughts on Ray-Vibrations193

Researches of Faraday and Plücker on Diamagnetism194

ⅦTHE MATHEMATICAL ELECTRICIANS OF THE MIDDLE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY198

F．Neumann＇s Theory of Induced Currents:the Electrodynamic Potential198

W．Weber＇s Theory of Electrons201

Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Units202

Criticisms of Weber＇s Theory203

Deduction of the Formulae for the Induction of Currents204

Riemann＇s Law206

Proposals to modify the Law of Gravitation207

Weber＇s Theory of Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism:later Theories208

Joule＇s Law:Energetics of the Voltaic Cell212

The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat213

Helmholtz and the Conservation of Energy214

Carnot＇s Principle:Cyclical Processes215

Caloric,Entropy and Absolute Temperature215

W．Thomson＇s Equation of Available Energy217

Researches of Helmholtz on Electrostatic and Electrodynamic Energy217

W．Thomson distinguishes the Circuital and Irrotational Magnetic Vectors219

His Theory of Magnecrystallic Action220

His Formula for the Energy of a Magnetic Field222

Extension of the Formula to the case of Fields produced by Currents223

Kirchhoff identifies Ohm＇s Electroscopic Force with Electrostatic Potential225

The Discharge of a Leyden Jar:W．Thomson＇s Theory226

The Velocity of Electricity and the Propagation of Telegraphic Signals227

Clausius＇Law of Force between Electric Charges:Crucial Experiments234

Nature of the Current235

The Thermo-electric Researches of Peltier and W．Thomson236

ⅧMAXWELL240

Gauss and Riemann on the Propagation of Electric Actions240

Analogies suggested by W．Thomson241

Maxwell＇s Hydrodynamical Analogy243

The Vector Potential244

Linear and Rotatory Interpretations of Magnetism245

Maxwell＇s Mechanical Model of the Electromagnetic Field247

Electric Displacement249

Similarity of Electric Vibrations to those of Light252

Connexion of Refractive Index and Specific Inductive Capacity253

Maxwell＇s Memoir of 1864255

The inquiry regarding Gravitation258

Maxwell＇s Treatment of Bodies in Motion258

The Propagation of Electric Disturbances in Crystals and in Metals259

Anomalous Dispersion261

The Maxwell-Sellmeier Theory of Dispersion262

Imperfections of the Electromagnetic Theory of Light266

The Theory of L．Lorenz267

Maxwell＇s Theory of Stress in the Electric Field271

The Pressure of Radiation273

Recoil produced by the Emission of Light275

Maxwell＇s Theory of the Magnetic Rotation of Light276

ⅨMODELS OF THE AETHER279

Analogies in which a Rotatory Character is attributed to Magnetism279

Models in which Magnetic Force is represented as a Linear Velocity280

Researches of W．Thomson,Bjerknes,and Leahy on Pulsating and Oscillating Bodies284

MacCullagh＇s Quasi-elastic Solid as a model of the Electric Medium286

The Hall Effect289

Models of Riemann and FitzGerald291

Helmholtz＇discovery regarding Vortex-motion293

Connexion with the Atomic Theory of Matter:W．Thomson＇s Vortex Atoms293

The Vortex-sponge Theory of the Aether:Researches of W．Thomson,FitzGerald and Hicks295

Larmor on the Aether303

ⅩTHE FOLLOWERS OF MAXWELL304

Helmholtz and Lorentz supply an Electromagnetic Theory of Reflexion304

Crucial Experiments of Helmholtz and Schiller305

The Moving Charged Sphere:Researches of J．J．Thomson,FitzGerald and Heaviside306

Mechanical Force on an Electric Charge moving in a Magnetic Field310

Conduction of Rapidly-alternating Currents311

FitzGerald devises the Magnetic Radiator312

Poynting＇s Theorem313

Poynting and J．J．Thomson develop the theory of Moving Lines of Force315

Mechanical Momentum in the Electromagnetic Field317

New Derivation of Maxwell＇s Equations by Hertz319

Hertz＇s Assumptions and Weber＇s Theory321

Experiments of Hughes and Hertz on Electric Waves322

The memoirs of Hertz and Heaviside on Fields in which Material Bodies are in Motion328

The Current of Dielectric Convection330

Kerr＇s Magneto-optic Phenomenon331

Rowland＇s Theory of Magneto-optics332

The Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation in Naturally-active Bodies334

ⅪCONDUCTION IN SOLUTIONS AND GASES FROM FARADAY TO THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON335

The Hypothesis of Williamson and Clausius335

Migration of the Ions336

The Researches of Hittorf and Kohlrausch336

Polarisation of Electrodes337

Electrocapillarity338

Single Differences of Potential340

Helmholtz＇Theory of Concentration-cells342

Arrhenius＇Hypothesis344

The Researches of Nernst345

Earlier investigations of the Discharge in Rarefied Gases349

Faraday observes the Dark Space350

Researches of Plüicker,Hittorf,Goldstein and Varley on the Cathode Rays351

Crookes and the Fourth State of Matter352

Objections and Alternatives to the Charged-particle Theory of Cathode　Rays353

Giese＇s and Schuster＇s Ionic Theory of Conduction in Gases355

Photo-electricity356

J．J．Thomson measures the Velocity of Cathode Rays357

Discover of χ-rays:Hypoheses regarding them357

Further Researches of J．J．Thomson on Cathode Rays360

Prout＇s Hypothesis361

The Ratio m/e362

Canal Rays363

Vitreous and Resinous Electricity363

Determination of the Ionic Charge by J．J．Thomson and Townsend364

Electrons,Nature of Ionisation365

Larmor＇s Argument on the Discrete Nature of Electric Charge365

ⅫCLASSICAL RADIATION-THEORY367

Early discoveries regarding Spectra367

Doppler＇s Principle368

Connexion of Emission and Absorption of Spectral Lines369

Prevost＇s Law of Exchanges371

Balfour Stewart and Kircbhoff on Emission and Absorption:Black Bodies371

Intrinsic Brightness of a Surface373

Stefan＇s Law and Boltzmann＇s proof of it374

Introduction of Wave-numbers by Stoney and Hartley375

Recognition of Series in Spectra375

Balmer＇s Formula and Rydberg＇s Constant376

The Series of the Alkali Metals377

Rydberg and Ritz＇s Combination-principle378

Wien＇s Theorems on Black-body Radiation379

The Equipartition of Energy382

Rayleigh＇s Law of Black-body Radiation383

ⅩⅢCLASSICAL THEORY IN THE AGE OF LORENTZ386

Stokes＇s Theory of Aethereal Motion near Moving Bodies386

Astronomical phenomena in which the Velocity of Light is involved387

Crucial Experiments relating to the Optics of Moving Bodies389

Lorentz＇Theory of Electrons392

The Scalar and Vector Potentials in Lorentz＇Theory394

Loss of Energy by Radiation from a Moving Charge396

Lorentz＇Theory of Dielectics397

Rontgen＇s Experiment on a Dielectric moving in an Electrostatic Field399

The Electronic Theory of Dispersion401

Deduction of Fresnel＇s Formnla from the Theory of Electrons403

Experimental verification of Lorentz＇Hypothesis403

FitzGerald＇s explanation of Michelson＇s Experiment404

Lorentz＇Treatise of 1895405

Modification of Fresnel＇s Formula406

Lorentz＇Local Time406

Expression of the Potentials in Terms of Discrete Electronic Charges408

The Two Scalar Potentials409

The Zeeman Effect410

Lorentz＇Theory of it411

Experiments inconsistent with the Theory413

Connexion of the Zeeman Effect with the Magnetic Rotation of Light414

The Optical Properties of Metals416

The Electronic Theory of Metals418

Thermionics425

INDEX429