《THE RULE OF LAW IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS》求取 ⇩

CHAPTERⅠ. THE FUNCTION OF LAW IN THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY1

（A） INTRODUCTION1

（i） Hart's concept of law and the insistence on the definition of ”law3

（ii） Hans Kelsen and the international legal order6

（iii） Myres S.McDougal and Michael Reisman：international law in a policy-orientated perspective8

（iv） The validity and effectiveness of a legal order must be determined ultimately by extra-legal criteria11

（v） The nature of international law： some conclusions13

CHAPTERⅡ. THE FORMATION OF GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW18

（A） GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW18

（i） Custom18

（ii） General principles of law recognized by civilized nations23

（iii） Doctrine24

（B） SPECIAL RELATIONS24

（i） The persistent objector25

（ii） Recognition， acquiescence and opposability25

（iii） Estoppel or preclusion27

（iv） Local custom27

（C） THE RELATION OF TREATIES TO GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW27

（D） JUDICIAL REASONING AND JUDICIAL LEGISLATION28

（E） THE POLITICS OF THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW32

CHAPTERⅢ. THE SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW35

（A） INTRODUCTION35

（i） The indicia of legal personality36

（ii） The paradigm is the State itself36

（B） THE STATE37

（i） The historical role of statehood37

（ii） Criteria of statehood37

（iii） The bases of statehood39

（C） PEOPLES AND UNITS OF SELF-DETERMINTATION39

（i） Problems of application41

（D） MINORITIES47

（E） INDIGENOUS PEOPLES47

（F） INDIVIDUALS48

（G） INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS48

CHAPTERⅣ. THE MECHANISMS OF PUBLIC ORDER52

（A） TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY AND BOUNDARIES52

（B） THE SYSTEM OF STATES AND THE THREATS TO PUBLIC ORDER POSED BY THE FORMATION OF NEW STATES52

（i） States as the basis of the legal order53

（ii） The concept of title to territory53

（iii） The principle of territorial integrity and the role of boundaries53

（iv） The formation of new States54

（v） State succession and boundaries54

（C） THE PRINCIPLE OF LM POSSIDETIS55

（i） Adoption in Africa56

（ii） Adoption in Asia56

（iii） Adoption in Europe57

（iv） The relation of uti possidetis and the principle of self-determination58

（D） IS DEMOCRACY A CRITERION OF LAWFUL GOVERNMENT IN PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW？59

（E） THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS62

CHAPTERⅤ. THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS65

（A） THE RULE OF LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS65

（B） THE PROBLEM OF THE “APPLICABLE LAW”65

（C） THE HISTORICAL DIMENSION66

（D） THE UNITED NATIONS CHARTER AS THE BASE LINE67

（E） MULTILATERAL NON-BINDING STRUMENTS68

（i） The Universal Declaration of Human Rights， 194869

（ii） The Helsinki Final Act， 197569

（iii） The Paris Charter， 199070

（F） STANDARD-SETTING BINDING MULTILATERAL CONVENTIONS70

（I） METHODS OF ENFORCEMENT71

（G） CUSTOMARY OR GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW72

（H） THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HUMANITARIAN LAW73

（I） THE APPEARANCE OF NEW CONCEPTS OF LOCUS STANDI74

CHAPTERⅥ. THE CONCEPT OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY79

（A） THE CONCEPT79

（B） RULE OF LAW IMPLICATIONS79

（C） THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND81

（D） THE NATURE OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY82

（E） THE CONCEPT OF IMPUTABILITY TO A STATE83

（F） THE APPLICABLE LAW83

（G） OBJECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY AND THE ROLE OF FAULT84

（H） PROBLEMS OF APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES85

（I） MULTILATERAL DISPUTES90

CHAPTERⅦ.THE CONDITIONS FOR THE MAKING OF INTERNATIONAL CLAIMS94

（A） THE RULE OF LAW AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF LEGAL INTEREST94

（B） THE REQUIREMENT OF A LEGAL INTEREST94

（C） THE EXISTENCE OF A LEGAL INTEREST IS NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT96

（D） THE FURTHER REQUIREMENT OF A CAUSE OF ACTION96

（E） THE DIRECT INTEREST OF A STATE98

（F） THE RULE OF NATIONALITY OF CLAIMS100

（G） THE NATIONALITY OF CORPORATIONS102

（H） OTHER ISSUES AFFECTING THE ADMISSIBILITY OF CLAIMS103

（i） The local remedies rule103

（ii） Delay in the presentation of claims105

（I） CONCLUDING REMARKS105

CHAPTER Ⅷ.THE PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES107

（A） CONSPECTUS： CERTAIN BASIC CONCEPTS107

（B） METHODS OF SETTLEMENT109

（i） Negotiation109

（ii） Mediation and conciliation109

（iii） Arbitration and adjudication110

（C） THE IN TERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE AND COMPULSORY JURISDICTION111

（i） The deterioration of the system112

（ii） The incidence of acceptance of compulsoRY jurisdiction113

（iii） Qualitative deterioration of the system113

（iv） The picture of deterioration stands in need of correction114

（D） ARBITRATION AND ADJUDICATION COMPARED116

（E） THE CURRENT PATTERNS OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION AND ADJUDICATION117

（i） Arbitrations under standing treaty clauses117

（ii） Arbitration ad hoc by virtue of a special agreement118

（iii） Arbitration by virtue of provisions in a peace treaty119

（iv） The work of semi-permanent tribunals119

（v） The International Court of Justice121

CHAPTER Ⅸ.REMEDIES FOR BREACHES OF OBLIGATIONS122

（A） THE CONCEPT OF SELF-HELP COMPARED WITH REMDIES122

（B） REMEDIESTHE INTERNATIONAL COURT122

（i） The remedial competence of the Court; in general122

（ii） Declaratory judgments124

（1） The declaratory judgment as a first stage in proceedings126

（2） A declaration of some form of legal entitlement127

（3） A declaration that certain conduct is contrary to international law127

（4） A declaration that specific acts of implementation of a decision are required128

（5） The declaration as a form of satisfaction129

（6） The declaration of the applicable principles and rules of international law130

（iii） Claims for damages131

（iv） Restitutio in integrum131

（C） THE LIMITS OF JUDICIAL REMEDIES132

（D） JUDICIAL ACTIVITY IN CONJUNCTION WITH POLITICAL MEANS OF SETTLEMENT134

（E） NON-FORCIBLE COUNTERMEASURES134

CHAPTER Ⅹ.CONTROL OF MAJOR NATURAL RESOURCE136

（A） INTRODUCTION136

（B） EXPROPRIATION AND CONTROL OF MAJOR NATURAL RESOURCES： CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT-MATTER136

（C） THE TREATMENT OF ALIENS ON STATE TERRITORY:THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES137

（D） EXPROPRIATION： THE POLICY ISSUES137

（E） WHAT CONSTITUTES EXPROPRIATION？138

（F） THE CUSTOMARY LAW POSITION AS STATED IN WESTERN SOURCESTHE PERIOD 1930 TO 1960139

（i） The views of Hersch Lauterpacht， 1937140

（ii） The Cordell Hull formula， 1938140

（G） THE REQUIREMENT OF LAWFUL PURPOSE143

（H） CATEGORIES OF EXPROPRIATION UNLAWFUL PER SE143

（I） THE EMERGENCE OF NEW CRITERIA， 1962-1974144

（i） The prospect of change144

（ii） General Assembly resolution 1803 on Permanent Sovereign over Natural Resources of 14 December 1962145

（iii） The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States of 12 December 1974147

（J） CONCLUSIONS ON EXPROPRIATION148

（K） STATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR BREACHES OF CONTRACT148

CHAPTER Ⅺ.TITLE TO TERRITORY （ACQUISITION AND LOSS OF TERRITORY）150

（A） INTRODUCTION150

（B） THE CONCEPT OF A BOUNDARY150

（i） Techniques of delimitation151

（C） THE RELATION BETWEEN BOUNDARY DISPUTES AND TERRITORIAL DISPUTES151

（D） THE CONCEPT OF TITLE; IN GENERAL152

（i） Subsidiary issues152

（1） The doctrine of inter-temporal law152

（2） Critical dates152

（E） MODES OF ACQUISITION AND LOSS OF TITLE153

（i） Methodology： modes of acquisition153

（ii） Roots of title153

（1） Cession and transfer in accordance with a treaty153

（2） The title of successor States in accordance with the principle of uti possidetis153

（3） Dispositions in the name of the international community153

（4） Renunciation or relinquishment153

（5） Adjudication154

（6） Effective occupation154

（7） Acquisitive prescription154

（8） Acquiescence and recognition155

（iii） The practical reality： various forms of evidence taken into account155

（F） THE BURDEN OF PROOF155

（G） THE EFFECTS OF THE SPECIAL AGREEMENT ON THE ISSUES TO BE DECIDED155

（H） PARTICULAR CATEGORIES OF EVIDENCE OF TITLE156

（i） Map evidence156

（1） Map evidence and treaty interpreta on： maps as parts of the preparatory work156

（2） Map evidence and the subsequent practice of the parties156

（3） Contemporaneous practical interpretation by the parties attested by maps of other Governments157

（4） Maps as evidence of acts of jurisdiction157

（5） Notoriety and openness of exercise of sovereignty evidenced by maps157

（6） Admissions and acquiescence in the form of map evidence158

（7） The opinion of authoritative official persons as a form of map evidence158

（8） Maps as evidence of non-official professional opinion; evidence of general opinion or repute159

（ii） Acts of local administration160

（iii） Traditional boundaries： evidence of general repute160

CHAPTER Ⅻ.MARITIME DELIMITATION162

（A） INTRODUCTION162

（B） THE SOURCES OF THE LAW RELATING TO MARITIME DELIMITATION162

（C） THE APPLICABLE LAW163

（D） THE GENESIS OF THE EQUITABLE PRINCIPLES GOVERNING SHELF DELIMITATION165

（E） THE CONCEPT OF NATURAL PROLONGATION169

（F） THE ROLE OF RELEVANT CIRCUMSTANCES170

（i） The geographical configuration of the coasts of the parties171

（ii） The general geographical context in which the delimitation will have to be effected171

（iii） The conduct of the parties171

（iv） The incidence of natural resources when this is known171

（v） The need to ensure equitable access to the resources of the area in dispute172

（vi） Security interests172

（vii） Other factors172

（G） THE APPLICATION OF EQUITABLE PRINCIPLES TO DELIMITATION OF EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONES AND FISHERY ZONES173

（H） THE ROLE OF PROPORTIONALITY173

（I） DISPARITY IN THE LENGTHS OF COASTS AS A RELEVANT CIRCUMSTANCE174

（J） EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE AND CONTINENTAL SHELF DELIMITATION COMPARED175

（K） SINGLE MARITIME BOUNDARIES175

（L） THE GENERAL MODUS OPERANDI OF DELIMITATION176

（M）THE ROLE OF ISLANDS IN DELIMITATION177

（N） AN ASSESSMENT OF THE WORK OF THE INTERNATIONALCOURT178

CHAPTER XⅢ. THE PROTECTION OF THE TERRITORIAL INTEGRITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT OF STATES179

（A） INTRODUCTION： THE BASIC PROBLEM179

（B） THE “APPLICABLE LAW” ISSUE179

（C） SOME RELEVANT STATE PRACTICE179

（D） SOME USEFUL CONCEPTS OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY183

（i） The knowledge and control which a State has over its territory183

（ii） State responsibility for private activities184

（E） THE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE CAUSES OF ACTION： THE NUCLEAR TESTS CASES184

（i） The political background of the case188

（ii） The sequel in 1995188

（F） STATE RESPONSIBILITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT189

（G） REMEDIES IN ANTICIPATION OF ACTUAL DAMAGE189

（H） STATE PRACTICE IN RELATION TO THE CHERNOBYL DISASTER IN 1986190

（i） The response of Governments to the Chernobyl disaster191

（1） The United Kingdom191

（2） Sweden191

（3） The Group of Seven192

（I） DEFICIENCIES IN THE APPROACH BY WAY OF CUSTOMARY LAW AND STATE RESPONSIBILITY192

CHAPTER XIV.THE USE OF FORCE BY STATES194

（A） THE SYSTEM OF PUBLIC ORDER AND THE PLACE OF SELF-HELP IN THE LAW194

（B） TITLE TO TERRITORY CANNOT BE DERIVED FROM THE THREAT OR USE OF FORCE196

（i） Apparent exceptions to the prniciple197

（C） THE STATUS OF THE USE OF ARMED FORCE AS A JUSTICIABLE QUESTION197

（D） THE GENERAL SCHEME OF THE UNTIED NATIONS RELATING TO THE USE OF FORCE BY STATES198

（E） MULTILATERALISM AS A GUARANTEE OF LEGALITY IN DECISION-MAKING201

（F） SPECIFIC ISSUES： THE CONCEPT OF SELF-DEFENCE202

（G） SPECIFIC ISSUES： THE CONCEPT OF ARMED ATTACK203

（H） SPECIFIC ISSUES： SO-CALLED “DEFENSIVE ARMED REPRISALS”205

（I） SPECIFIC ISSUES： FORCIBLE HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION206

（J） SPECIFIC ISSUES： INTERVENTION WITH CONSENT OR ON REQUEST209

（K） CONCLUSIONS209

CHAPTER XV.THE ROLE OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL AND THE RULE OF LAW211

（A） THE PURPOSE211

（B） THE ROLE OF THE POLITICAL ORGANS IN MAKING LEGAL DETERMATIONS211

（C） JUDGING THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM BY MUNICIPAL LAW CRITERIA212

（D） AN EPITOME OF THE RULE OF LAW213

（E） EQUAL SUBJECTION TO LAW214

（F） THE POWERS CONCERNED MUST BE EXERCISED ACCORDANCE WITH LAW215

（G） HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDS225

（H） THE CONTROL OF THE CONDUCT OF POLITICAL ORGANS226

（I） PROCEDURAL FAIRNESS AND THE POLITICAL ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS226

（J） CONCLUSION228

INDEX231